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//y. J^/^. 




'I 



1.1 

• ■ 



CHINA; 



POLITICAL, COMMERCIAL, 



AND 



SOCIAL; 



IN AN OFFICIAL REPORT TO HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT. 



Br 



R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN, Esq., 

I,ATB HSR majesty's TREASURSB FOR THE COLONIAL, CONSULAR AND DIVLOMATIC 8ERVICB8 IN 
CHINA ; AND A MEMBER OF HER MAJESTY'S LBOISLATIYB COUNCIL AT BONO BONO. 



VOL. I. 




LONDON: 
JAMES MADDEN, 8, LEADENHALL STREET. 



MDCCCXLVII. 



LONDON : 

nREWRTER AHD WKIT, PRINTKRH, 
HAND COURT, DOWGATK. 



DEDICATION. 



TO THE QUEEN. 

Madam, 

The gracioiia permission to dedicate these Volumes to 
YotiT Majesty, induces me to solicit a consideration of the great 
interests involved in thg British relations with China; an Empire 
first opened to our commerce by the patriotic spirit of Queen 
Elizabeth,* and with which our intercourse has been enlarged 
during the auspicHous reign of Your Majesty. 

To extend personal eommunipation vUh nearly four hundred 
million comparatively civilized people — to establish mercantile 
relations with the immense regions of Central Asia — and to pro- 
mote the blessingB of Ghristiaa civilization among myriads of 
mankind, are the principal objects of this work; and, however 
imperiectly deTel<^d, I trust they will receive the &vourable 
iLotice of Your Majesty. 



DEDICATION. 

A vast Empire, which has been abuost miraculously preserved 
for more than two thousand years, is now in friendly alliance with 
Your Majesty, and with two of the most powerful Sovereigns of 
Europe, (those of France and Russia), — ^the isolation of ages has 
been destroyed — and China is now admitted into the social 
compact of the western hemisphere. 

England, France, and Russia, are the representatives of three 
great principles in politics — ^the Aristocratic — the Democratic, and 
the Absolute j they are also identified with three forms of Chris- 
tianity — ^the Protestant — the Romanist, and the Greek ; they are 
antagonistic in Creed, Constitution, and Character. The domi- 
nions of Your Majesty, and those of the Emperor of Russia, now 
adjoin those of the Emperor of China. 

It is consistent with the experience of history, that at no dis- 
tant period a rivalry will arise in the East, that a strenuous endea- 
vour will be made to establish a dominant influence in China — 
to stamp an impress on a materialist people admirably adapted 
for the reception of superior intelligence, and to wield for ulterior 
purposes a mighty nation which, although long dormant, is capa- 
ble of producing an extraordinary influence oh mankind. 

It is, therefore, of great importance that international relations 
be established on the most amicable basis, and that the divine prin- 
ciples of Justice, revealed for the guidance of kingdoms as well as 
of individuals, shall characterize every transaction with the 
Chinese government and people. 

It is thus only that England can possess a valuable and 



DEDICATION. 

permanent influence in China^ — ^it is by such means a mutuality 
of interests may best be consolidated^ — and an opening intercourse 
be disarmed of that fear or jealousy which destroys confidence^ 
and may eventually lead to hostilities between the two Empires. 

The exalted character of Your Majesty precludes the idea that 
any other course of policy would receive the Royal sanction ; and 
I am^ therefore^ emboldened to entreat the attention of Tour 
Majesty to the section in this Report on the '^ English Opium 
Traffic in China.'^* It is impossible to peruse the official docu- 
ments on this point without acknowledging that Your Majesty^ s 
subjects are engaged in the commission of a fearful crime in 
China ; that they are actively embarked in a traffic which is des- 
troying the lives and deteriorating the morals of thousands of our 
fellow creatures ; and that the Emperor of China^ after waging 
an ineffectual war to stop this calamity^ is now compelled to 
endure the continued and encreasing perpetration of an offence 
which would not be permitted against any Sovereignty in Eu- 
rope; and which our superior strength enables us to commit 
with impunity. 

The island of Hong Kong was ceded to Your Majesty by the 
Emperor of China^ as a residence for British merchants^ and as a 
careening station for their ships. That island has been converted 
by the Representative of Your Majesty into an Opium dep6t, and 
under the purchased license of Your Majesty, a drug justly deno- 
minated by the Emperor of China, as a " flowing poison,^' is sold 
in defiance of the Chinese Government, for the avowed purpose 
of being smuggled into China, — or for the use of such of His 

• Vol. ii. p. 174 to 262. 



DEDICATION. 

Majesty's subjects as may seek protection tinder the flag of 
England^ from the adjacent mainland, where the " opium offence'^ 
is pnnishable with death I* 

I crave the attention of Your Majesty to another matter dis- 
cussed in this Report. t It is a suggestive fact that England did 
not become a colonizing and commercial nation until Frotestanism 
was established, and the Bible translated for dissemination 
in distant lands. A maritime and mercantile nation appears 
to have been specially chosen by the Supreme Disposer of 
Events for this hallowed purpose. 

The English language is now more extensively spoken than any 
other in the World, and in due time will most probably be the me- 
dium of communication among all Nations ; the British Sovereignty 
is more widely spread than that of any known Empire, — ^the richest 
plains, — ^the loftiest mountains, — the largest rivers,-^the most 
capacious lakes, — the best placed islands, — the securest havens, 
and the strongest fortresses are all within the dominions of Your 
Majesty, — the commerce and wealth of this Empire have no parallel 
in Ancient or Modern record ; enterprize, skill, and capital have 
brought the most distant regions of the earth by steam navigation 
within constant, speedy, and certain communication ; and the bles- 
sings of civil and religious liberty, — of political and moral freedom, 
are firmly established throughout an Empire— on which the sun 
never sets. 

Such have been the glorious results of the principles established 

• Vol. ii. p. 186, 187, 188, 221. 

t State of Religion and Christianity in China. Vol. ii. ch. 10, p. 428 to 601. 



DEBICATION. 

and inculcated by the regal pi^decessor of Your Majesty^ Qtieeii 
Elizabeth ; their op^^ting effects were tiianifested in the found- 
ation of Colonies^ — ^in the extension of commerce^ — ^and m the 
dissemination of a pure Christianity to which colonies and com- 
merce have largely contributed. 

Tet the British Empire is but in the inftincy of its power> 
and we have scarcely commenced the moral and spiritual duties 
for wMch dominion has been granted. 

We are stUl on the threshold of an Empire^ whose territory 
is nearly as large as Europe, with a population equal in numbers 
to one third of mankind ; and we have no intercourse whatever 
with the extensive and populotis kingdoms of Japan, Corea, Cochin- 
China, and Siam, which contain about one hundred million of 
civilized inhabitants,* and which I humbly seek permission to 
open to British trade and intercourse. 

An interchange of the peculiar products of each Country tend^ 
to the establishment of friendly relations, and may be made the 
medium for promoting civilization. Commerce is thus rendered 
auxiliary to the extension of Christianity, which rightly understood 
is inseparable from the enjoyment of the highest range of earthly 
power and happiness. 

There is, therefore, every inducement to encourage the esta- 
blishment of a pure faith in the regions recently opened, and still 
to be opened, to British intercourse ; it is thus only, under Divine 

♦ Vol, i., c. ix. p. 295 to p. 361. 



DEDICATION. 

Providence, that the sceptre of Your Majesty may be upheld, 
and it appears to be for this sacred purpose that vast power and 
wide spread dominion have been granted to England* 

I should have been unworthy of the honourable station entrusted 
to me by the Gracious favour of Your Majesty, had I failed to 
prepare to the best of my ability, the statements contained in 
these volumes, which have occupied my sedulous attention for the 
past three years ; I conceived it to be an object of national impor- 
tance to examine in detail our new and complex position in 
China; — ^to investigate the value or worthlessness of Hong Kong;* — 
to check to the utmost of my power, a wasteful application of 
the resources of Your Majesty's treasury; — and to point out 
what appeared to be an erroneous course of national policy, which 
required timely correction previous to the evacuation of Chusan.f 

To accomplish these objects, I conscientiously believed that I 
should most efficiently fulfil my grateful duty as a servant of the 
Crown, by returning without delay to England, even at the sacri- 
fice of my position in China, to lay this official report before Your 
Majesty's government.]: 

If it be deemed that I have erred in so doing, I trust Your 
Majesty will indulgently consider the originating motive, and that 
a zealous desire to promote the welfare of my country, may be 
pleaded in extenuation. 

With an heartfelt prayer, that it may please an Overruling 

* Vol. ii. page 317. f Vol. ii. page 369. 

X Correspondence on resignntion, vol. ii. p. 404 to 410, and Appendix, p. xiv. to xviii. 



DBOICATION. 

Providence to vouchsafe to Your Majesty a continuance of that 
Wisdom which can alone benefit the counsels of a nation ; — and 
a full enjoyment of those blessings which have hitherto resulted 
from the admirable fulfilment of the exalted station devolving 

on the Sovereign of this great Empire,— I beg permission to 

subscribe myself, — 



Your Majesty's dutiful subject. 



R. M. MARTIN. 



London, 
March Ist, 1847. 



LIST OF MR. MARTIN'S WORKS. 



Copies 

printed 

I. History of the British Colonies, 6 vols. ; 28 Maps, Charts, &c. . 8,500 

II. Marquis Wellesley's Indian Despatches, 6 vols.; Maps, Plans, &c. 8,000 

III. British Colonial Library, 10 vols. ; Engravings, Maps, &c. . . 22,000 

IV. Eastern India, 8 vols. ; 200 Drawings, Maps, Plans, &c. 4,500 
V. Statistics of the British Colonies, I large vol. ; 8,000,000 Figures, 

Seals, &c. ..... 3,000 

VI. Ireland as it was— island ought to be (1888) ; Tabular CharU, &c. 1,500 
VII. Political, Commercial, and Financial Condition of Anglo- Eastern 

Empire in 1882, 8vo. .... 1,500 

VIII. British relations with the Chinese Empire in 1882, 8vo. . 8,000 

IX. Taxation of the British Empire ; with Tabular Views, &c. 1,500 

X. Past and Present State of Tea Trade of England, Europe, and America 1,500 

XI. Analysis of Parliamentary Evidence on China Trade, 1882 . 8,000 

XII. Colonial Policy of the British Empire^ Part I., Government . 1,500 

XIII. Marquis Wellesley's Spanish Despatches, 1 vol., 8vo. . 1,500 

XIV. Colonial Magazine, 7 vols. 8vo., completed. Engravings, Ac. • 12,000 
XV. Ireland before and after the Union ; (1844) Map, Tables, &c. . 8,000 

XVI. Analysis of the Bible, two Editions, and a Translation into Chinese 5;000 
XVII. China : Political, Commercial, and Social, with Maps and Tables, 

2 vols. 8vo. ..... 2,000 

Evidence before Parliament on Taxation, in 1886 — 87* 
Examination before Select Committee of House of Commons, on the 

Commerce of India, the Subsidiary States, &c., 1889 — 40. 
Poor Lawa for Ireland, a Measure of Justice for England, &c. 

Pamphlet: impressions circulated . . . 10,000 

East and West India Sugar Duties Equalization : impressions circulated 40,000 
Monetary System of British India : imprespions circulated 10,000 

Analysis of the Evidence before Parliament for two Sessions, on the 

Handloom Weavers; prepared at the unanimous request of 

the Parliamentary Committee, and printed by order of the 

House of Commons. 
The Bank of England and the Country Bankers . . 8,000 

Effects of Climate, Food, and Drink upon Man . • 2,000 

Colonial Atlas, with Maps of each Colony, Engraving. 
Various Pamphlets on Commerce, Finance, Shipping, &c. 

The foregoing publications comprise about seventy thousand octavo volumes, ill us* 
trated by numerous Maps, Engravings, Plans, and Statistical Charts. The mere 
mechanical expenditure on those works, for printing, paper, engraving, 8rc., has been 
upwards of twenty thousand pounds sterling, towards which not the slightest attist- 
ancc has been afforded by Her Migesty's Government* 



J 



L^ 




> 



« ♦ 



» 

I 



■s. 



■Or 



I 



4 

.1 



. T \--- .* 



PREFACE. 



Thd object of the following pi^es is to awaken an earnest interest 
in England in behalf of one-third of the human race ; to ofPer^ 
in a condensed view^ the past history and present state of China 
in its domestic and foreign relations; to investigate the causes - 
which prevent four hundred million * industrious^ sober^ obedient^ 
pacific^ and educated people^ holding the position to which they are 
entitled among the other kingdoms of the earth ; to examine our 
own political^ commercial^ and social position in that vast country, 
in order that the statesman, the merchant, and the philanthropist, 
may be the better enabled to direct their course of action to the 
production of some beneficial result equally conducive to the 
welfare and concord of England and China. 

Hitherto, we have acted in ignorance of the internal state of 
China, and without any defined system. The result has been a 
disappointment of sanguine expectations, and the practical exclu- 
sion of Europeans from that internal communication by which 
trade could be best extended, and social intercourse beneficially 
promoted. 

To remedy this and other serious defects in our past pro- 
ceedings, all the useful information collected by trustworthy 
observers at different periods, has been collated under different 

♦ In China Proper there are 367,682,907 inhabitants, (see Statisdcal Chart of 
Provinces), and in the Dependencies of Mantchooria, Mongolia, Turkestan, Tibet, 
&c. at least 30,000,000, making a total of pour hundred million people under one 
government. The population of the whole earth is estimated at 800,000,000 to 
1,000,000,000 million. 



11 PREFACE. 

heads. The accuracy of this information has been substantiated 
by the testimony of several learned and intelligent gentlemen, 
long resident in China ; and every accessible part of the country 
has been visited to verify the statements subjected to examination. 

The following documents were, accordingly, transmitted to Her 
Majesty's Government, in the hope they might prove of some 
utiUty ; and the Lords' Committee of the Privy Council for Trade 
having o£Pered no objection to their publication, they are now 
submitted for public perusal, divested of several volununous 
statistical tables and official returns. 

The plan adopted has been to shew, in the first part, the 
physical geography; the population, and, so far as may be 
necessary to an understanding of character, their customs, habits 
and classification; the agricultural, manufacturing, and mineral 
products; the imperial, provincial, and municipal governments; 
the monetary system; and the amount and state of the revenue 
of China. 

The second part contains the early history of this ancient 
empire, and its intercourse with foreign nations — ^European and 
Asiatic, — in elucidation of the line of policy which it seems 
advisable to pursue. 

The third part details the internal^ coasting, and foreign traffic, 
and the regulations under which it is conducted. To this is 
subjoined a separate section on the tea trad^, and another on 
opium, with the state papers of the Chinese ministers and au<^ 
thorities on this highly-important and still unsettled question. 

The fourth part describes the Consular Ports of Canton, Amoy, 
Foochoo, Ningpo, and Shanghai ; and the stations of Hong-Kong, 
Chusan, Macao, and ELiackta. To this has been added a succinct 
exposition, deducible from the facts detailed, on our present posi- 
tion and fiiture prospects in China. 

If wealth and power involve a responsibility to Him who per- 
mits their acquisition ; — if England have been almost miraculously 
raised from a small insular kingdom, to become the dominant 
Empire of the earth; — ^if her destiny be, through the apparent 
instrumentality of her commerce, to civilize mankind ; — then, 
indeed, a fearful responsibility attends her proceedings in China. 



Preface. iii 

The onward progress of England^ in political and commercial 
freedom — ^in the practical application of science — in the accmnu« 
lation of capital — ^in the extension of maritime communication^ — 
indicates that she cannot be passive : action is essential to her 
existence — ^it is the main spring of her life — the animating im- 
pulse which produces evil or good; if not rightly directed^ it 
will tend to her downfall after the manner of other states ; but^ 
under wise and righteous principles^ this very law of her being 
will conduce to the establishment of her supremacy over the earth 
so long as Christianity shall exist. 

It is the direct interest of all other nations that this supremacy 
be maintained ; a republic of kingdoms is as Utopian as a republic 
of individuals: — some powerful Empire has always swayed the 
worlds but whoever possessed the dominion has unfortunately used 
its power for the subjugation and enslavement^ rather than for the 
elevation and Uberty^ of weaker states. 

This has not been the career of England; her insularity has 
happily prevented the necessity of seeking continental European 
territory; her free political institutions have naturally rendered 
her desirous of extending their advantages to other nations ; and 
her pure and tolerant religion has made her the ark to which the 
oppressed can flee for safety and repose ; and^ while placing a salu- 
tary check on ambition or mere aggrandizement^ it has inspired 
the desire^ and furnished the means, of contributing to the ad- 
vancement of all countries. 

What then have the nations of Europe to fear from the 
supremacy of England? She has thrown open the ports of her 
wide-spread maritime dominion to every nation; whatever new 
territory she conquers, or reclaims from the desert, it is finely 
opened to mercantile competition ; she retains no selfish monopoly 
— <5laim8 no undue privilege, — exercises no arbitrary sway to the 
prejudice of Europe. Possessed of a power, which could at any 
moment arouse a general war, — ^with resources at her command far 
greater than she ever possessed, — of a magnitude which strangers 
cannot see, and which are comprehended but by few, she yet 
earnestly seeks peace, because it is a Christian duty, and desires 
no other rivalry with her surrounding competitors than that of 



IV PREFACE. 

extending the blessings of order^ industry^ and intelligence^ — of 
promoting the interchange of commodities, — ^and of facilitating 
iiitercourse with the most distant regions. These unquestionable 
facts demonstrate, that wb&teyer position England may acquire in 
China it will not be for her exclusive advantage; the time is 
happily arriving, when nations, as well as individuals, learn that 
a benefit conferred returns to the donor with a blessing, — that 
injuries reflect punishment on the perpetrp.tor8, — and thus even in 
a selfish point of view, the exercise of good is a &r better policy 
than the commission of injustice. 

A conviction of the truth gf this divine precept is slowly dawning 
on the minds of men ; it is the high behest of England to prove 
the reality by its practical application. No sphere could be more 
appropriate for its exercise than China, where myriads of our 
fellow creatures seem specially adapted for, and prepared to receive, 
the influence of a Christian civilization. It is impossible to 
estim&tefully the effects of such.aA influence on ^o vast a mass 
of manliind ;— it is difSieult to calculate the extraordinary commer/- 
cial power which would be created by four hundred million active 
and intelligent beings, with numerpus desires, .keen perceptions^ 
and indomitable industry, having full scope given to their sin- 
gular energies ; — ^it is deeply interesting to consider the physical, 
moral, and intellectual results which i^ould accrue not only to 
the continent of Asia, but also to those of Europe and of America, 
fpm the christianization of China. Under Providence, this glori- 
ous consummation may be witnessed by the easting generation ; 
but whether this be permitted or not, it is the bounden duty of 
all Christians to aid in its accomplishment. 

An humble labourer in a vineyard teeming with promises, 
sincerely trusts, that this truly important subject will be examined 
without reference to its comparatively feeble exposition, and that 
the facts submitted for consideration, may induce those who have 
the , means, to assist in opening China to perfect freedom of in- 
tercourse with all Europe and America, for the sake of extending 
the commerce, and promoting the freedom, the welfare, and thq 
happiness of mankind. 



' I 



CHINA; 

GEOGRAPHICAL, POLITICAL, COMMERCIAL, 

AND SOCIAL. 



CHAPTER I. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The Chinese Empire extends through about thirty-five degrees of 
latitude^ and about sixty-fire degrees of longitude, bounded on the 
east by the Pacific Ocean for upwards of 2000 miles j on the south by 
Cochm-China, Tonquin, Laos, Siam, Birmah^ Assam, and Tibet ; 
on the west by Independent Tartary or Great Bukhara and Tur- 
kestan ; and on the north by the Bujs^ian Empire^ the Siberian 
region, and tribes of nomadic Tartars. 

The length of the territory, including the dependent provinces, is 
computed at 3000 miles, the breadth at 2000 miles^ and the area at 
five million square miles ; of which about 1,800,000 square miles are 
covered by China Proper, which extends from Pekin in 40^ N. to 
the Gulf of Tonquin in 20° S., and from the sea coast in 121° E. 
to the frontiers of Tibet in the 100th degree of longitude. There 
are also several large islands attached or tributary to China ; such as 
Hainan in 20° N. latitude, Formosa in 25°, the Chusan Archipelago 
in 30°, and Segalien in 50° N. 

The physical aspect of China, so far as we know, is varied by three 
great features : an elevated northern region, or plateau, on which 
Pekin is situated ; an alluvial plain through which the Yangtzekang 
and Hwang-ho rivers flow to the sea ; and a broken, undulating terri- 
tory in the south, with broad valleys and lofty mountains. The coast 
line from. Hainan Island in 20° S., to the Quesan group of islets in 
29° 22', forms a segment of a circle, and consists generally of a 
bold, rugged, mountainous sea-frontage sloping to the westward, 
seldom assuming a tabular form, but frequently rising to cones, or 
" haycocks '^ of 1000 feet, with supporting spurs or buttresses in 
every direction ; some connected with an inland ridge of moun- 
tains, which^ at a distance of about 150 to 200 miles from the 
coast, traverse the provinces of Fokien and Chekeang, and is then 



PHYSICAL ASPJ5CT OF CHINA. 



contiuued to the nartheiTi botmdaiy of Kwautuuig (Cg,nton) pro- 
Tince, and to the westward towards Bootan. The whole of this 
co^st, line is hioken iuto bajs, inlets, aud coves, with numerous 
islands and rocks, allowing free entrance, and affording good shelter 
fof vessels. There arq few hidden daj^^gers ; the ^rocks have gene- 
rally deep water alongside ; and as the urind seldom blows direct on 
the shore^ navigation is comparatively easy and safe. The aspect 
of the south coast is very sterile ; its geological formation appears 
to consist of red and grey, sandstone, intermixed with coarse granite 
in various stages of decomposition. As the sea is receding from 
the land,. large boulder stones, and grotei^quely formed rocks, worn 
by ^if^d ^na.^Bj^er^^ff^yefk wild ^nd jsipgulf^r.^a^ppearappe to the 
co^rt?' .At.eveiy^nQQk^.oir. on any. foqk 99ntaipipg the smallest 
paten of arable surface, a fishing village or smal) ^^ding town is to 
be.^i;md,rbiMl t^^,gcj^^^«l feature is a^dne^s^ an4|its concomitant 
pov,ertjK,) There .arCa therefore, only three .laxg/B, maritime cities, 
Caplfqinp ^Vf^oj, ^^d Fuchoo, in this dinsion. ■ .T^e first deriving 
its^pjuppo^ fi^^iefly frpm foreign, Europ^an,^ anil, Appier^can com- 
m^pp;.,t^ l^econd principally from its trade withCfanfon, Formosa, 
Sipg^pore^ and the Eastern Archipelago ; and tho; third owing its 
impo^t^nic^, tO: be^ng the principal city pf the large province of 
Fokien, . 

Mf^^T^oi northward from the Quesaji Gronp^ thf aspect of the 
co]^i][tfy begins ,tp Mange, the land dipping tojjljho ^prth^yard as the 
delta of the Yangtzekang js ;apprpaphe(i», ^t;tn,i9y Chilean Archi- 
pelag<;yjtl^ geological structure appe^w to ,lf)|3 ^piwpipally a por- 
phy^^tig claystqne, tabular, andcolnmnar; no granite is seen; the 
hills and mountains are clothed with stately trees, or ciiltivated to 
their very summits with crops requiring various altitudes; rich 
vegetation and continuous grain and cotton cultivation abound ; 
cattle and sheep become more plentiful ; the sea runs deeply into 
the land, which is watered by numerous rivers, and which, together 
with the adjacent seas, abound in varieties of fish! ' '. 

Ql^ekeang is indented with bays and rivers, . Keangsoo is acces- 

siy e by the large rivers Yangtzekang and Hwang-ho or xellow River, 

so ffOJ^^ from its immense discharge of yellow.clay and i^nd, which 

cpJ^uif^tV^ neighbouring sea. Shantung is rugged, and marked 

by n^p^pntpries; the southern part of ChihJi province is flat and 

•a-wJ^*- Tientien, or the White River, is the only port: available 

fpr.}5^cls pf burthen. . . r . 

,. ^}}{Si}pg ^ vast extent of territory the aspect and climate must be 

• very qj(Vjer?i4ed j— thus there are some tracts similnlf to tl^e swampy 

.pJajfflf^jQfJi.Uplland,; others like the mountains and .valleys, of 

, Swi[^^f(yJ^nq^^ plains of Lombardy— tne cnampagne 

QQXffiU^ 9f .pya,nce — the, dremy steppes of Russia — thje sandy deserts 

of ^/iRfi^j-T-apud the , beautiful hills, and dales/the corn and wood- 

lai^ds^, of pur own incomparable country. 

|t ]^ difficult to tra(?e the mountain ridges : o^^ appears to ex- 



MOXTNTAINS OP CHINA. 3 

tead from the province of Ymman, tlirough Canton province in a 
N.E. direction, through Fokein to Chekeang; it is through this 
ridge that the Moling road or pass has been cut, for interior traffic 
between Canton and Keangsoo. Another chain passes froni Sze* 
chuen to Shense, and gives the Yellow River a northerly direc- 
tion through the great wall. Two mountains extend westward of 
Peking. Generally speaking, the mountains in the N.W. hxe not 
continuous ranges, but "table lands,'' which extend N. and S. of 
the Yellow Eiver, over the provinces of Kansuh and Shense. 

The provinces of Shanse, Shense, Sze-chuen, and Yutiiian con- 
stitute a part of the table land of central Asia. In Yuiinan the 
mountains are siiid to forni a gigantic \f iall, mUh! hiit '■ 6tte^ pass, 
which is closed with two gates, guarded onohe sHdfty "I'oncminese, 
on the other l?7 tehiiiese. - • -^' • • < i" ' .^ 

The three lines of tnountains, wljich begin respe^jtiVe*^ At the 
Yellow Sea, at th6 Yangtzekang, and at the boa^t ol" Qarttto, run 
their course to' the eastward, north-east and Sooth-eaJsf, tttrtil they 
unite in the great range of European Tibet, a spat 61- buttress of 
the mighty Himalaya. Two great branches froitntfae-l^betian 
chain, ate called by the Chinese PiA-?m^ (northem) arid W«n-/i«y 
(southern) chain. The Tuniing, which is an oflFsliodt of ^fhe Vihling^ 
separates China from Tibet, and branches to lake Kokoiibif -(Blue 
Sea.) The l^ony/range N. W. of Peking is a portion of tile Yin 
elevation, which divides China Proper from Mongolia, and which 
is continued to the Korean mountains, ' i » j; f 

The three' ba^swliich determine the course of 1;he "water- 
courses, are, 1st, that S. of the Nanling chain, through whifch the 
rivers flow in the Pokeen and Canton provinces ; — 2nd, the middle 
basin N. of the Nanling, and S. of the Pihling mountains, which 
collects the waters that become tributary to the Yangtzekang, — 
the 3rd is N., of the Pihling, extending to the mountain ridges of 
Tartary, called the Yang, through which the Hwang-ho flows into 
the Yellow Sea. 

It is estimated that two- thirds of China Proper are studded with 
lofty mountains, some of which are perpetually covered with snow. 
The Chinese geographers enumerate 5,270 celebrated motmtains, 
of which th^y say 467 yield copper, and 3,609 iron. There is no 
known volcano in China ^ some natives say a lofty mormtaiti peak 
near Ytinnan' occasionally emits flame. In Snen-se thfea^fe are 
said to be tyro, mountains which have chasms on theiir- sitihmits^ 
which give off flame and smoke when dry grass is throWii' thfetein. 
' The lakes of China are of two descriptions; those of thfe Moun- 
tiins, ajidtl^ose of the plains. The surface of the ttpland diibicts, 
aild especialfy that of the province of Yunnan, is cKversified with 
frequently occurring and widely extended collectioii^ of 'Abater, 
Ibdged in the depressed arid pent-up places of the glens and valleys. 
The lakes of the plains are mere dilatations of the rivers, ojr the 
estuarieS' in \rtiich they terminate ; and they are so numerous and 

b2 



4 LAKES OF CHINA. 

expansive^ that^ indusiye of the marshy places with which they are 
associated^ they are supposed to occupy a fourth part of the whole 
surface of the low country. The plains of China are to all appear- 
ance usurpations of the land upon the once undisputed domains 
of the water. This enlargement of the land is in active operatioui 
hy the continued deposition of alluvial matter. The Yellow Sea, 
with, all its creeks^ bays and gulfs^ is daily becoming less deep, and 
more broken with banks and islands. The Po-yang, the largest 
of these lakes, lies between 28° and SOP North in the province of 
Keang-soo, and receives rivers from most points of the compass ; 
the water of which collected into one stream, forms one of the 
tributaries of the Yangtzekang. This lake, including its marshes, 
is said to be 100 miles in length, and is called the ^' Inland Sea.*' 

Two hundred miles westward of this lake, in the province of 
Hunan a labyrinth of lakes spreads over an extensive surface on 
both sides of the river Yangtzekang. 

Of this group the lake Tong-ting is said to be the largest; it is esti- 
mated at nearly 800 miles in circumference. It form is irregular, 
and it. receives the waters of many rivers of various sizes. 

A great portion of the Imperial Canal lies through a dreary waste 
of morieisis^ which occasionally assumes the appearance of a sea, 
interspersed with islands. 

When tiie floods subside, the district still retains numerous 
groups of large and permanent lakes; among which are the Po-yang, 
and the Lemaare to the west of the canal; the Tai, ^ctended at the 
feet of picturesque hills; together with many more dispersed over 
the space which intervenes between the two great rivers. 

The Si'hu Lake, situated in the department of Hangchoo, in the 
province of Chekeang, covers an area of about four miles in dia- 
meter. Barrow says, its natural and artificial beauties far surpass 
any others he met with in China. The lake extends &om the 
wsJls of the city to the foot of the mountains, spreading its arms 
here and there into the wooded valleys. The margin of the lake 
is adorned with summer houses, grottoes, and light fancy buildings, 
and it is covered with innumerable pleasure-boats; the lake teems 
with fish, is not deep, has a gravelly bottom, and excellent water. 

The Great River, Yangtzekang, is the largest in Asia, and is 
scarcely inferior to any in America ; it is said to measure 2,383 
miles m length. It is seen in the western part of the Kokonor 
countrv, the southern division of Mongolia. Its sources are pro- 
bably in. the mountain ridge that fiimish the Bhramaputra, and 
Irrawaddy. There seem to be three branches, which flow in an 
easte:fly direction and unite at a place called Woo-shoo-too-sze-too, 
in latitude 26^ ; from thence the river runs south-east and enters 
Szechuen province. Even in Tsing-hae many places are situated 
on its banks; which proves that the region around it must be fer- 
tile, rind the river navigable. This river, by means of canals and 
lakes, stands in coimection with the whole empire ; it is the key to 



RIVERS AND GREAT WALL. 5 

China and central Asia^ and has been aptly named the ''girdle of the 
empire/' The mouth of the Yangtzekang is about thirty miles 
wide, between the 31° and 32° N. latitude, divided into several 
channels by low islands, defended by dykes and cultivated by 
Chinese. The largest, Tsungming, lying W. N. W. and E. S. E, is 
thirty miles long by six to nine broad, and richly productive. We 
know, from our fleet under the able command of Admiral Sir Wil- 
liam Parker, that this noble river is navigable 200 miles for the 
largest class vessels. Coal abounds everywhere on its banks ; and 
under a wise policy, our steam-boats would be freely traversing this 
vast artery to the rich central regions of China, and spreading civi- 
lization, peace, commerce, and science among millions of mankind. 

The Hwang^ho, or Yellow River, affords inland communication 
for nearly 2,000 miles ; but from its low and loose banks and rapid 
floods, the country on its margin is subject to frequent inunda- 
tions. Prom both these great rivers we are still excluded. 

The Grand Canal, called in Chinese the Yunho, or '^ Transit Kiver,'' 
is a stupendous work — especially when we consider the period at 
which it was finished; namely, in the fourteenth ceutury. It con- 
nects the Yangtzekang and Hwang-ho Rivers at a point near 
their embouche, where they are about 100 miles apart. . The, canal 
passes through the great plain which extends from Peking through 
the deserts of Chihli, part of Shantung, and Keangsoo, to Hang-choo 
in Chekeang. We are excluded from traffic on this canal, ajid .have 
no port or trading station on its banks. The canal is about 800 
miles long, and, in Shantung, where it is fed at its greatest eleva- 
tion by the Wien-ho, the banks are protected by strong masonry. 
Vessek of large burden are raised over the sluices (which serve 
instead of locks) by rude but effective machinery constructed in 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Chinkeangfoo, on the Yang- 
tzekang, communicates with the Grand Canal, and would be an 
excellent station for our trade. 

The far-famed Great Wall of China was commenced by the Em- 
peror Hwangte, who reigned B.C. 246. His reign may be justly 
termed an iron rule, that drew forth sufficient means and men to 
complete in a few years this gigantic work. The intention ai^ 
object of this wall was to fortify China against the inroads of the 
Tartars. The wall is 1,500 miles long; in height varying according 
to the locality — ^in some parts the elevation is twenty-five feet^ with 
towers forty feet high erected at not more than 100 yards distance 
from each other, for a considerable portion of the entiire wall- The 
country on which a portion of the wall is erected is hillv and wild; 
it is built on the steep sides of mountains, between -five and six 
thousand feet above the level of the sea ; it surmounts their sum- 
mits, and again descends into the valleys : on crossing a river it 
forms a ponderous arch. A large mound of stone erectQd.in the 
province of Chih-li, east of Peking, formed the beginning of this 
mighty bulwark. Its principal direction is from E. to W» ; the ram- 



6 TOPOOKAPITY OP PEOVINCES. 

part runs along the noptliem confines of three provinces, Chih-lr, 
Shan-s'e^ and Shen-se ; and thtxs defends in sotne mearare a popula- 
tion of fifcy million of inhabitants^ which are scattered along the 
whole noorthem frontier of the empire. This great wall terminates 
in latitude 40° 4' N., longitude 120° 2' E. A sketch was taken of 
its termination by one of our war-party in 1840. The wall, after 
descending from the highlands, which are very rugged, stretches 
northward a few miles across a narrow plain to a ledge of rocks, 
with which it seems to unite, and there loses itself in the waters of 
the gulf of Leaontung. The celebrated passes through the Great 
Wall, proceecjitig westward from the eoast, arty the following: 
Hifun^-k^tf, liat. 40^ 26^1 N.,' 'Kupe-kau, lat. 40^ 48"' N., ^Lord Ma- 
cartnfej'a/ etpbassj^ pUssed thi^ongn Kupe-kau gaUe), TushiJtau, lat. 
41° W'SO^N^.Vthe fburth gate is the key of thec6m^^ce of Russia 
and GMnk ; it is^ called Chang-kau, in lat. 40°6r i&' N. and is the 
fixed T'^siffeiice of a great number of merchants; Who earrjr on a large 
trade ^th/ Mongolia. It is the residence of the Cbmmaiider-in- 
Chief, of tti^' Keeper-General of Chahar, who has a large military 
force 'it Ms 'cbmniand at all times. 

In 0¥aer bo convey some idea of the topography of the different 
proviiifce!?,tl](ef following abstract is subjoined. 

Cnriik-ti of Pte-CHELE has had its northern boundaries greatly ex* 
tendedj^^jt v^as atltiently called Yu and YetTf and is now the capital 
protindfr yf tire Empire. The sea coast forms the b6unda!ry from 
Shan'TPHlig PiVmnce to the' Great Wall, which ibr a • Aort dis- 
tance diodes Chih-li ; thence a palisade is thcf sep^ating^ line, to 
the River Hwang-ho. This river marks the northern boundary of 
the province from the palisade to its source among the peaks of the 
Hingan. Thence the boundary runs nearly due east and west, in 
lat. 42^ 30' N. The western boundary running nearly N. and S. 
extends over more than seven and a half degrees of latitude, and 
divides Chih-li from Shense and Honan. The western parts of the 
province are fiat, and slope towards the sea, but the country towards 
Shanrse rises and is hilly. There are two lakes in the B. and S. 
division of the province. The great canal passes through the E. 
part, ttnd fells into the Pei-ho in lat. 89° 11^ long. 0° 48" east of 
J?ektng. The Pei^ho river takes its rise a little beyond the Great 
Wall' 6.Tld disembogues in the gulph of Pe-chele. It has no tides, 
but iiWs very rapidly. The entrance to the river Pei^ho is rather 
shallow, in consequence of a bar which stretches for a considerab^le 
distf^&c^' into the sea. The province is divided iiito districts !and 
and tliij^itmetits, called /oo, ting, chaw and keen. Afoo is a large 
porttAn^pi^ department of a prorince. A iinff is a division of a 
proTiAfc'smallelr'than a foo. A chaw is a division sfftiila/to a ting, 
afad,'fik,e^it,' independent of any 0th6r. A keen pi^f be 'called- a 
distrittj or ismiEtll division of a department, \fhetlier of ti f6o, or of 
an independent chaw or ting. Eadh foo, ting, tihaw, iitid been, 
possesses one walled town, which is the seat 6t itn gtiv^minent. 



TOFO&RAFHT OF FROYINCES. 7 

This province containa eleven foo, six chaw d^mrtments^ tliree 
ting distnctSj eevei^teen chau distriots^ and one hundred and 
twenty-four heen districts) and is compared in size with England 
and Wales united, or to Michigan, Illinois or Arkansas in the 
United States.. 

Shantung (t. e. ^' Bast of fehe hills^^ province, anciently called Tri 
and Lu, hounded by Chih-li, is a mountainous couutiy, the coast 
bold and wdl indented. The whole surface of the province is 
intersected by rivers, at no great distance from each other. The 
Tatsing'ho is the largest river in the province, the Yu-ho, is a 
branch o| th^ P^irhp^^.^Th^ riv^r^^.are shofrt. . The* grand canal 
commenqes a*:I^gwg-?fiba».f |frop[i,;thi^ ppint aaorth to Tiei?tsin, 
the oon^n^ui^iqatiQia^is fdp;^ thq cha^P^l of a/hir^nch-of thePei-ho. 
The native mt^^rpointr put .nuj^aerous . hsuibpi^rs. and /buys, .which 
are almost unl^own <t(i foreigners. Shantung, is about the size 
of Wales in Qi^^^t /Britain, or of Georgia in the .United States. 

Shanh98 provineej cidled "West of the Hills/' an^ently Tsin 
and CAati, isfweof the central divisions of the. ipm^pir^f^ It is 
bounded on the east by Chih-li and Honaa; on the.sqp1ji,by tibnan; 
on the west by Sbensi ; and on the north by Chabur iji ^o^golia. 
The whole western, and half of the southern boun^^aryi are!^(jrmed 
by. the , Yellpw Blver. The province is nearly ini t\\e, fc|T?x of a 
parallelogramj^of which the river is one of the long^si^ 4S(ide(^. Its 
boundaries ai^p n^arked tp the north by the Great W^l^ Tfl^st sepa- 
rates theupro^coflrpm Mongolia. Sban-se is mount^oiis, has 
no lakesj butji^uiperous rivers; the Hwaitg-ho runa for 400 miles 
through the province. 

Hon an province, anciently called Yen and Yu, the centre region 
of China^ borders to the north on Chih-li, Shan-se, and Shan- 
tung, south upon Hoo-pih, east upon Keang-nan, (Keangso and 
Anhwin),ajid west upon Shan-se. Its greatest limits to the north, 
are lat. S7°> to the south, 31° 30'; to the west, 6"" 20' west of 
Peking;, to the east, 25' long, east of Peking. The northern part 
stretches into the provinces of Chih-le, and Shan-tung. The river 
Hwang-rho runs through its whole breadth. The rivers in the 
north are the >Chwg-ho, Hin-ho, and Ke-ho ; in the south there 
ift the Eoo^ho, with several others. Ho-nan-foo, in lat. 34^ 43' in 
the westempart of the province, near Hwang-ho river, is surroiiinded 
wiiUi mountaiBS, and lies between three rivers, which disei^ogue 

into the Hw^n^-»ho, .-}.>[ 

Keano-'&oo. AND Gan-hwuy provinccs were fom^fly muted 
under the n^me of Keang-oian. On the north they ho^^j^ Shan- 
tong and Honan; on the south Keang-si and Che-k^ng; jop. the 
east the* Yellow ^a;.on the west Hoo-pih and Uu^nan.. JC|3^ poun- 
try extends firpm 29°^ tor35°8' lat. N., and from 5° 10^ E,.Q(j^|eking, 
to 1° 30^ W* , Tie f rivers are mostly tributary .^o thp. YaiUgtze- 
kong, or tO;;. the river Hwai, Those that flow into tbu? J^st^ come 
ftom Hopautt^ mi^ tp.ithfi 9.15^ / :N|Iofl»t^iis/^q,jftefai'^ the 



8 TOrOQBAVBY OF PB0V1NC19. 

BonfhenDk part of the proyince; and the nagei form the high 
lands on each side of the Great Bivtr, where many of the streams 
have their sources. The coast is low and flat* The country^ for 
ten miles inland, is alluvial soil. The only island along the sea 
coast of any height is Tac-shan, to the north of the Yellow Biver, 
in lid;. 84^ 4(y ; and this is intersected by a double ridge of hills. 
The proTince is about half as large as Spain. 

KiANO-si (west of the liyer) extends from lat. 24P Sff to 80'' !(/', 
and fix>m long. 1^ 6(X E. of Peking ; bounded on the N.E. by Hu- 
pih and Anhwui; on the E. by Che-kiang and Fo-Keen; on the 
S. by Kwang-tung ; and on the W. by Hunan. Its shape is irre- 
gular, about 400 miles up the Yangtsdumg, in a north-westemly 
and then in a south-westeraly, direction, through the united pro* 
vinces of KeaugHsoo and Anhwui. On the noith-^eastem borders 
of Eiang-sij tiie rirer leaves the province, after a oourse of about 
eighty miles along its northern frontier, through a part of which 
distance it Ibems the boundary line. The country is hilly, but not 
mountainous. The southrwestem hills separate it from Kwang* 
tung FKrvince. The province is about tlie size of Virgiiiia, U.S.,. 
or twiet the size of Portugal. 

Foo-Kbsn, anciently called Min or Ho-Keen, bonders towards 
the N» upon Che-Keang, S. upon Kwang-tung (Canton), E. upon 
the Ocean and Formosa Channel, and towards the W. on Keang-se. 
It extends from lat. 26'' 85' to 28'' 47', from long^ W. of Peking 
0^ 22', to long. E. of Peking 4F, (the Formosa island not included). 
The province is very mountainous. Its sea-<K)ast abounds with 
harbours, many of them spacious and safe ; the whole coast is more 
indented than any other maritime province. Not far from the 
main are several islands, the principal ones are Namoa, Tungshan, 
Heaman, Kinmun, and Haytan. The Min is the chief river ; its 
branches extend over half the province, and unite into one channel 
near the city of Fuchoo. Nearly every branch of the Min has its 
fountain-head within the boundaries of the proTince. A high 
range of mountains extend from S. to the N., the highest form* 
ing the line of demarcation between Kiangse and Foo-keen. In 
its general features it presents very little level ground. 

Chekiano province, originally the count^ of fiie, is of a 
drcalar form, extending from lat. 27"^ Zff to Sr 20" N., and from 
long. I'' 48^ to e'' 80^ E. of Peking, and includes the principal 
islands of the Chusan Archipelago. On the N. it is bounded by 
the province of Kiaag-see, E. by the sea, S. by Foo-keen, and W. 
by Eiang-si and Anhwui. The country is in general hilly* The 
rivers of the province are numerous, and all of them have a westerly 
course^ The chief river is the Tang-keang, a navigable river, near 
the mouth of which Hang-choo, the capital, is sitnaited; frirther 
to the S. the Gow-keang and Nan-keang flow into the sea. Its 
coasts are studded with islands, which extend as £nr .as the Great 
Yangtaekang; the most important aie the Chusan group, of 



T0P06&APHY OF PEOVIN0B8. 9 

about seventeen or eighteen islands ; the largest island is Ting4ifM^ 
or the Great Ghusan. The harbours are Cha>poo^ Han^^ehoo^ 
Ning-po^ Ting-hae^ Ship-po^ Wan-choo^ and Tae-choo. 

Hoo-FiH AND Htj-nan^ formerly Hoo-kwang^ borders to the 
N. on the province of Ho-nan; the S. on Ewang-tnng (Canton) 
and Kwang-^se; to the E« upon Kiang«nan andKiang-si; and 
the W. upon Shen-se^ Sa&i^huen^ ttid Kwei^-dioo ; and extends 
from lat. 24^ 45' to 38° 20', and from long. W. of PeWng, 
0° 20" to 8\ It is divided by the Yangtzekang into two 
parts, the northern being called the Hoo-pih, the southern the 
Hu-nan. The former is the largest. The Yangtsekang in 
its serpentine course receives the Han-Keang: there are several 
rivers, which floir sear the city of Han Yang, into the same river. 
The large and nsmerous lakes in the neighboorfaood of the Yang- 
tzekang have given the name to this province. This provmoe is 
as well watered as any in China. 

Sh£n-s£ and Kahsuh (west of the Pass) previous to ibs rdgn 
of Keen-lui^, were only one province. These provinoes ^:>^end 
from lat.*82° to 40^ and from longitude W. of Peking, 6^ 25' ta 
17°. They border to the N. upon Mongolia, to the S» upon Hoo« 
pih and Sfi&^chuen, to the E. upon Shan-^se, and to the W. upon 
Mongolia and Soungana; the Great Wall runs along its^ northern 
frontiers. Several mountain ridges pass throu^ Shen^«e.^ The 
river Hwang-ho flows along the great wall, crossing it twice before 
it takes its oousseiato Mongcdia. The Wei-ho, one of the large 
rivers in China, flows into the Yellow Eivar in lat. 84^ 4fy, The 
Han»-ho, and £an4sin-ho rise in Shen-se and run into Hoo-pih. 

SsB-CHUBN, anciently called Sishu, the westernmost and largest 
of all the Chinese provinces, extends from lat. 25^ 67' to 83^, and 
from long. W. of Peking, 6° 5(y to 15° 48'. It borders to the N. 
upon Sheit-se ; to the S. upon Yun-nan and Kwei-choo; to the 
W. upon the territory of the Kokonor Tartars and the country of 
the Tufans ; and the E. upon Hu-nan and Uoo-pih. The Yang- 
tzekang river travels all through this province. All the other 
rivers in the province, (which are numerous) fall into that noble 
stream. 

KwAMo^TVNo, {Le. Cant<m, "Eastern-breadth,^'-— also called Fw- 
iuHff,) extends from lat. 20^ 18' to 25'' 84', and from long. E. o( 
Pek^ 0° 58' to long. W. of Peking. It borders to the N. upon 
Eeang«8e and FoJieen ; S. upon the oeean ; E. upon Foo-keen ; W. 
upon Hu-nan, Kwang-se, and Ton-quin, from which it is separated 
by the Gtav-uan Baver, the natural boundary. 

Tiie southowestem ehdin of mountains runs along its northern 
boundaries and the Mei-Ung mountain, through which a road is 
cut.> The pxSneqpal idai^ along the coast are Hae^nui, to the 
south, and the Ladione group, to which H(mg-kong belongs. T^ie 
island of Hae-nan is mountainous, extends about £%- leagues in a 
N.E. and &W. dHeeoiion, and is about thirty-five leagues in breadth; 



10 TOPOGBAPHY OF PHOYiNCBS* 

its lH.W..andW, coasts are said to be skirted wttihi shoal haxJa 
extending six or seven leagues from the shoneb There are seve- 
ral fijae. harbours on the south coast* , The island of ^'Namoa/' 
(under the gOTcmment of Canton)^ is thirteen miles in lengthy and 
about three in breadth- The eastern point of the island is in lat. 
23"^ 28' N., and Icmg. IW 59" 30'' £. ; it has twoi mountains, con- 
nected by a low.isthmu9r The pronnce is vrell watered ; the chief 
river is called Choorkeang, (Pearl Biver,) on which the capital 
(Canton) is situated. East of Canton is the Tung-keang ; W. the 
Yang-keang > Chaou-ohoo-foo is situated on the Han-keang, a con- 
siderable iivw» 

K-^ANQ^s* .(called formerly Yuesi) estends from<21^. SO' 15" lat., 
fron;i, ipng. ^. Qf,.]?eking,i.4^ 10' to 12?. It; borders towards the 
N. ;uppU{Kw(9i-chQQtaud Hu-rnaa; £. upon. Kwtmgf-tung (Canton) ; 
W. ^pon^.Y^n^nain j and S^iupoa Canton and Tou^tun, a province 
in CpcjiiQ,|China> formerly in the possession of the Chinese; brass 
pillai?^! ?W^^. the bowdary . The chief river is- the Sang-koi, which 
annually overflows its banks. Kwang^se has numerous small rivers 
whieih.flqw. between its moimtains. 

Yw^-NAflT. (anciently called Tien) extends {torn: hi. 2V 40' to 28^; 
fron^/.lO? ^Q'.itq l8P5(f long. W. of Peking^ It border towards 
the :{f[.,upon.Sfienchuen; towards the E.>on KweWltoo and Kwa^g- 
se; ^. ^B9Ji Tibci, and the terrijtoryof savage utttions ; S. upon 
Ava, l4ao9,.;9Ad Ton-quin. YuDTnam i» separated fromi'Sze-chuen 
on thci N. bj. the, £in.-sharkeang. . The Mei^nan^kem^ Kew-lung- 
keangj are all river9 of considerable breadth, and disjombogue them- 
selves, the former in the gulph of Cambodia, the latter near Bang- 
kok. In the centre of the province are four Jakes, the largest, 
Shang-kwan, is about thirty miles long. The mo«ntaios are bold 
and steep. The westernmost city is called Ta^le, situated in the 
Se-urh, a lake which gives rise to the Ho-te IUve]% It runs into 
Ton-quin. 

KwEi-CHOO (or ''rich district/' ancientlv Land of Kien>) extends 
from lat. 24^ 4()' to 29°, and from long/W. of Pekiag^ 7° 17' to 
12° 36'» . It borders towards the N. upon Sse^idiuen ; &. upon the 
KwaQg^se and Yun-nan; towards the E. upon Hu^nan; and to- 
wax4^-the W. upon Sze-chuen. It is a wild mountainous coun- 
try, .fThfBreare several large rivers which intersedt the province. 
The^, principal rivers are the Woo-keang, Chaiig«keho> and the 
Shi^h^i^., It, may be seen from the foregoing how : little we really 
knojWiqf.thia vast Empire, but a few remarks on some of: the cities 
in |bhe,;;^orth of China will indicate how erroaaeously we have re- 
strict^, ^ur intercourse to Canton^ and the moro southern pro- 
vince^u^ f '•, .;•;'.•!) 

]!fp^,l^^,thi^n Ave cities of the first order, amooig !whi(3fa are the 
cele1^a,tqd,i>ne9'C(fv Su-»ehaw.Bnd Hlang4>Cbew,'arejsitwijtfed on the 
bai]^.<9f th^t part pf the. Qrand Canal, between »th&basiiiAt Hang- 
Cb^^i fli^d its ^ctiE) A wittL the • YaagtsekaAg, i >a t <^tance of csAy 



GHIKF CITIES — StJCHAW. H 

2O0 miles; besides Nankm, aad Tong-Kiang fba, and Hew-Ghewfoo, 
with many other innumerable cities and towns. 

Snchaw was reo^tly visited by one of the commercial deputies 
attached to the French mission, and ought to have been explored 
by British enterprize* It is two days distant from the sea, acces* 
sible only by inland water commnnication ; is the second city of 
the province of Kiangsoo, and the residence of a governor. Shang- 
hai is merely its port, and may be compared to Gravesend or 
Greenock, in comparison to London or Glasgow. Yet onr ihter- 
conrse is restricted to Shanghai. The sitnation is beautiful ; the 
country all around very pleasant ; the climate delightfbl, and it is 
represented to 4)01 the mosife populous city of the empire: ' Pi'om 
Shanghai the^ route is ^through cities and villages; ii6t :af'ykrd of 
ground is left unonlfivated. The country around fe' iliftt, 4he' ndil of 
a rich alluvial; chai^a^ter. Cotton, silk, ricfe, whcftt; r^e;"bferley, 
and vegetafcies, a»e the productioniB^. The intewjOBamufaic'atibn is 
carried on by liiefOi* of rivers, canals, and kkes/Surrbttoded by 
the most flourishing vegetation. - ' • /.• u- 

The mulberry, the tallow tree, the black bamboo; gtfe^ \rillow, 
the paper tree, cypress, the pine, and the wide-iprfeadlrig^ bahian 
tree, all flourish. : Machines, moved by men or btiflFaloes^ keet< up 
constant imgattbn' : gtanite sluices are constmcted'fOi* ihe same 
purpose: ^ the canab ftp e fuH of boats, lighten8,''ana jiinks, 
laden with grainy frtrit and other prodncts. Snchaw^ like 
TIangchew, is not only a town of large commerce and sili-nianu- 
factures, it is afed devoted to pleasure. Tbe Chinese say, *"Ab^e is 
Paradise, beloi^ Snchaw ; to be happy on earth, one must be born 
here, live in Canton, and die in Lian-chau.'^ Suchaw has a high 
reputation in every part of China for its splendid marble bmldings, 
the elegance of its tombs, the number of its granite bridges, and 
artificial canak, gardens, streets and quays; as also for the 
politeness of its inhabitants, and especially for the beauty of the 
female sex. 

It is said that thie city contains one million of inhabitants, 
and that there is another million in the vicinity. Indeed there 
are several towns included in one, comprising what is called 
Suchaw: the city proper, is inclosed with high walls, ^Indi are 
about ten miles in circumference; the suburbs are -fbtir dis- 
tinct towns, about ten miles in length, and neai»ly'thcJ^'S«iie in 
breadth; the population living on the waters is also vei^ 'j^at. 
Lord Maicartney passped through this beautiful dty,- attd 'ftilty 
confirms the foregoing statement. His boats w^re-ne^lj* three 
hotrs parsing thesubnrbs bcf(»?e they reached the city *#albl^ In 
one building-yard, not less than sixteen vessels of 200 toirtP each 
were obsferv^d tm the stocks. Th6 intelligent ' atad' a#i^iAt^us 
Mr. PortttBc, agent for the HorticuHtiral Sbdiety, itboii T had 
the pleasure tb meet in the North of CMna, and to accbnipifTiy to 
Ningpo,''Mt6wipted.tO' enter tl^ecifyj M^hoiife succtefee. ■ The French 



13 CHIEF CITIES — HAITCREW. 

govetnmeiit were anxious to learn some information on tHe mul- 
berr^j and silk-manufacture^ and a Mr. Isadore Hedde traversed 
the city and suburbs in a silk dress^ and was not discovered. 
He visited the Mint^ and all the public buildings^ examined 
the great and extensive manufacturing locality in the western 
portion of the city, where there are manufactories of iron, ivory, 
bone, gold, silver, glass, paper, cotton and silk ; and saw them 
making that beautiful silk called (Eeh Sz^,) the knowledge of 
which is confined to Suchaw : M. Hedde says it surpasses any 
thing known in Eumpe in its representation of figures and flowers. 
M. Hedde ascended the Tiger-no^e hill Pagoda, from whence he 
had a good view of the town, the fortifications, the great imperial 
canal, rivers, streams, and pools which intersect the city; at the 
foot oi the hill he saw beautiful shops of every description. 

The enterprising Frenchman who imdertook this interesting 
explcfration (for wlndb an Englishman would be liable to deporta- 
tion and penalties by his own government^ under our mistaken 
policy,) passed along the imperial canal, among elegant boats 
conducted by young girls, richly dressed, and having their heads 
decked with gold and flowers : and among several junks laden 
with the imperial revenues. He saw fields of mulberry trees, and 
learned the mode of their cultivation, visited several establishments 
and observed the ingenious apparatus for avoiding double cocoons, 
the simple process for reeling the fine white silk, named t's ih li^ 
and the weU known seven cocoon thread. 

The city of Hang-chew is situated between the basin of the 
Orand Canal and the river Yangtzekang, which flows into the 
sea about sixty miles eastward of the city. The tide, when full, 
increases the width of the river about four miles opposite to the 
city. At low water there is a level strand two miles broad. All 
goods brought by sea into the river from the southward, as well as 
whatever comes from the lakes and rivers of Che-kiang and Fo- 
kien, must be landed at this city in their way to the northward ; 
the city is therefore the general emporium between the northern 
and southern provinces. 

The population of this city is supposed to be equal to that of 
Peking. It is the residence of the viceroy, and the capital of the 
province of Che-keang, which produces more silk than all the other 
districts of the empire ; not less than 60,000 workmen of this 
article are said to be employed within the walls of the city. 

The town of Han-ken, situated in the northern division of the 
province of Hou-quang, i.e. Hoo-pih, ranks next the above-named 
cities, in the estimation of the Chinese at Canton^ as a place of 
trade. The city of Vu-chang, is the centre of China, and the 
place from Whence it is the easiest to keep open a communication 
with the i*est of the provinces. This city, in conjunction with 
Hang-yang (only separated by the Tangtzekang) forms the most 
populous and frequented portion of China. The two dties may 



CHAPOO AND CHAtCdfiW. 13 

be compared to Paris and Lyons in size, &e. The Yangtsekang 
is here 150 leagues from the sea, yet it is three miles wide^ and 
deep enough for vessels of any size ; the number of vessels navi- 
gating the river is incredible. 

Chapoo is situated on the northern side of the great bay of Hang- 
chew^ in the province of Che-keang^ it is a place of considerable 
trading importance^ and the only port from which the trade between 
China and Japan is permitted. 

During the war^ when our troops took possession of this place, 
the well-known policy of the Chinese government was clearly 
developed. Like all the considerable cities of China, the Tartar 
troops had a portion of the city allotted to themselves^ which is 
surrounded by a wall. The style of the houses are of mixed cha- 
racter, some being small and others of a more spacious dinlension. 
One, in particular, was every way suited as a residence for some 
distinguished p^sonage. Each is detached, and sunfounded with 
a wall of about seven feet high, and almost every yard has a well 
sunk very deep. The walls of the houses are constructed of brick, 
which is plastered and whitened. The average nun^r of the 
houses consisted of only two apartments, with a kitchen at the 
rear; the furniture consisted of tables, chairs, and a kijad of tide- 
board, together with presses, and wardrobes which were well sup- 
plied with female habiliments. Every where was seen the eomlbrts^ 
if not the elegancies, of life. 

The Mantchou Emperor, Yung-ching, in 1730, devoted great 
attention to the defences of Chapoo, and provided it with a garrison 
of 2,000 men, 1,500 matchlocks, 30,000 arrow-men, and a regular 
armoury. 

Chang-chew, is a large city in the province of Foo-keen, about 
thirty-six miles from Amoy, which is merely the port of Chang- 
chow, from which we are excluded — or, rather, from which we have 
voluntarily excluded ourselves. The city lies in a valley nearly em- 
bosomed in hills, wit^ a river running through it, surrounded by a 
wall, inside of which it is thickly planted with trees of large dimen- 
sions. The population is said to exceed 800,000, independent of 
the suburbs. 

From an eminence near the city a large plain may be seen, 
about thirty miles long and nearly twenty broad, on which there 
are not less than eighty villages teeming with an agricultural popu- 
lation. The streets of the city are from ten to twdve feet wide, some 
of them well paved. 

The shoj^s are numerous, and appeared well stocked with a 
coarse description of goods much resembling those of Canton. 
The houses are fronted with wood, with brick side-walls, and gene- 
rally about two stories high. The crowds and. bustle in the. streets 
prove the city to be populous. The bridges over the river are two 
in number ; one of them is built on twenty-six piles of stone about 
thirty feet apart and twenty feet each in height; beams ace laid 



14 PEKING THB CAPITAL. 

froBi'']^il^td j^e^ and otheris across^ and then paved with granite 
blocks/ some <A whieli extend from pile to pile in length; a few 
may^be seenfuU iottf feet long and two-and-a-half broad: the 
width 'of the bridge is about nine feet^ and full on^ half is covered 
with shops and cooking stalls. The temples are large^ and spacious 
grounds are attached to them ; thejr are said to be one thousand 
years old, and have every appearance of great antiquity : the idols 
are large, averaging from ten to sixteen feet high, cut out of granite. 

There toe two large cities on the Canton River of which we know 
nothing, and there must be many wealthy and populous towns of 
whidiwe are entirely ignorant, and likely to continue so unless we 
adopt a wiser policy. 

Peking, the capital of the Chiiteke/Em'pitb,^' stailds on a 
vast^'^Min* in' l^e' ittteiior bf the provinc^ (nC^-Ii. the most 
nori;hOi*ii;'prdViiiee of China Piroper. It is situated in lat. 89° 55' 
Ni; atiA in»'lbng. n& 4^ E. from Greenwich and 'about 8° 80' E. 
of Ckit6i. " 0»-*he E. and S. the skndjr pldn extends farther 
than Hihe' Bye can reach; on the W. ai^d N. Wife begin to rise 
above' the "plaiti only a few miles from the Walls of l£e city; a 
short?' lifistftnce^ beyond, the prospect is bouridfed by mountains 
which separate Chih-li from Mantchouria. Frojoa the Qreat Wall, 
wM^h'j^sed' along upon this ridge of mountaiiis,^Pekih'g is about 
fifty liites di«ta(nt ; and about 100 miles front the gulph of Chih-li. 
The-PeiJ-bo river rising in the N. near the <JTeat Wall, ;flows within 
twelve! ^ttiiles of the city on the B. and passed db^n in a S. E. 
dircicitioh by Tientsin into the sea. Bome ^m^l rivers issuing 
from the mountains on the N. W. water a part of t!he plain ; one 
of them, Tunghwuy, descends to the city and supplies its numerous 
canals and tanks ; it then flows eastward, and uniting with one of 
the larger rivers, forms an extensive water communication, by 
which the city is supplied with provisions. The style of the archi- 
tecture and general appearance of the buildings is simil^ to that of 
Canton, except that the streets are rather wider, and generally run 
straight, but they are not paved. The multitude of 'moveable work- 
sht^ps of tinkers, barbers, cobblers, and blacksmithi^ ; and the tents 
and booths where eatables are exposed for sde, contract a spacious 
Btl<^ett^ a narrow path. 1 

^Sh^ librfhern division of Peking, consists of three inidosures, one 
withii!i 'another, each surrounded by its own wall; ' The first con- 
tains tfae-impelrial palace and the abodes of the difFeren); members 
of ^th^ ibipfcirial household ; the second Tvas designed fprthe itesi- 
deAce^fthe officers of the court, but is now occupied by Chinese 
jn^i^Mantsj the third consists of the space iiiclos0d by; the outer 
wrfll»,^* and wks formerly inhabited by Tartar soldiei's ; but is noW 
in"t3le possession of Chinese shop-keepers and trlElders. "' 

The first'enclosure ('' forbidden city^^) is the most splendid and 
important part of Peking. It is situated nearly in the centre of 
the northern division of the city. It is an oblong parallelogram 



PEKING FAiiACSS, 15 

aboiit two xmlea .^ circiUQJerence^ a»d cndos^d .by ra? wiJl. i^eaidy 
thirty feet hig^.. This wall is built, of poli^jj^ r^djbriekr^U^- 
rounded by a /ditct lined with J^ewu.stoae^. and cp^^reA: iwith 
yamished tiles of a biiiUiazit yellow, which gives it the ^^pear^noe^ 
when seen tpider. the raya of the sun, of beiug coverf4 : with a roof 
of gold. Th^ interior of this iudosur^, . is . occupied by ;a, . suite of 
court-yards and ajartmeftts, which^ it is said, for be9.uty.a11d. splen- 
dour cannot be surpassed. It is divided into three parts, the 
eastern, middle audi western. The middl? divistion.ctHitaiusithe 
imperisd buildings, which are subdivided into several, distiiuct 
palaces. They ^9^ . J:qH^ese^ted by th^ Jesuits; ^p^rf^trmodds 
of architecture. ; , .,,i,,^ j ,^ ,,f ,, .^ ^.. . 

The gates. and I|]^,^'e4hi^,d9scribed*^^^ .,,1^ ,ii.ii/i Al 

1. The Merufmn j(?ai;^./,,,B^foxp ttas g^t^,^fl, tbet Eh ifti/Stf(/luttar 
dial, and pn tH.JflT, j^^ and ii?. Ae tpifOTiabwrftifeftjlw^}*^!! 
and gong. ,..Al^pf^J))ic o%^i;8^^nter and le^veitl|e ^s^^m ^k ^he 
eastern avenue j; floiie piii; the princes pf the .inip^al.fetoi4 Jare 
permitted tp B*8f} tljc western, and none b^ut tfee^ <^Pip§l!::p^i,the 
southern avenue;,;iyt, this gate, are di&tribute4 th^, !]^QSfiDj^^ofco 
embassies; and fjlJ.Vaf,, captives. are here reoeiyed by, li^^^Ms^ty 

in person, ♦ ". .,,\ ;;•.... -..J .rirurr.^ f[')f • 

2. The ]qaie pfj^pji^ five avenues, and,issa,w|«)W)xtbfiii#ag 
of white marpie,^ .,'ybe. h^ght of th^ basement is Hwi^i^y .ft^ ^d 
the whole pdific^pUjCj^Vudred a^d ten* The ascent, tcii it /is., by 
five flights of for^y^^eaph, and it ia highly or^amwt^d^'With 
tripods auA oil^^jr,j%u^ei in bronzp. Here,, on all tbe .hp^id^a 
and on th^ anm\(ersa^y of the emperor's birth-day, he receiresthe 
congratulations of his of&cers, who prostrate themselves to. the 
eami before him, and strike the ground with their foreheads. 

3. The Hall of Perfect Peace. Here the emperor comes to 
examine t|ie implements prepared for the annual ceremony of 
ploughing. j . . 

4. The Ball (f Secure Peace ; in this the Emperor gives a baoquet 
to his foreign guests on new year's day, 

5. The JYanq^il Palace of Heaven^ *«^- o{ the Emperor, ,This;i8 a 
private retyeat^j^to whicji no one can approach without sp^ial. per- 
mission. This palace is described by the Russians, who,h9^^)had 
inany opportunities .of seeing it, as ^^ the loftiest, riche^j«9#4(l4ost 
magnificent.pfaUthQ palaces/' On each side of the .ti[^.^e^r,i9 a 
large copper yes5j^l,.in which incense is burnt day ^4.»ig4^* <n' 

9^ The l^ulace ofEartKs Repose , i.e. of the Empre^^,; w»^^ i^isaid 
to ^e very,t)eautiful ^ adjoining this is the imperial ifloTO^itga^rA^J?* 
yrl^f^ is laid out in walks, for Her Majesty, who tjeing^.^jJU^ift^j 
^^npt a(Jp;ptei the Chinese custom of crippli^g^hj9r},feet^lft»d 
therefore is said to ^^oy herself in what is called ".Earth.'s,]^ep9se." 
Ixij.thja gj\rdjpn is a library, said to contain a .collecti|On?,Q^ aUithe 
books published in China. . f«, . t , 

H^angr9hing, .another imperial city, co»stitute8 the seppu^ en- 



16 PEKING PALACES« 

d^anxai and minoonds the " forbidden city/' It is about six miles 
in arciuaference^ and surrounded by a wall twenty feet high. It 
has four large gates. Tae-meaou^ '' the great tem]^e/^ is dedicated 
to the ancestors of the reigning family. The outer wall^ which 
includes several buildings^ is about 8^000 feet in circumference. 

Near the eastern gate of the forbidden city is a depository of 
military stores : and a vast number of workshops for their manu- 
facture. Northward from these is the Russian CoUegej designed to 
furnish interpreters for the government in its intercourse with 
Eussia, 

Eingshan^ an artificial mountain^ is situated directly N. from 
the imperial palace. Its base is said to consist of ooal^ which is 
kept in reserve in case of siege, and its surface is the earth dug 
from the ditches that surround tito walls* It is about 150 feet in 
height, and encircled by a wall. It has five summits Iving east 
and west from each other. This mountain is planted ana laid out 
in shady walks. 

The western part of this enclosure is ornamented with an arti- 
ficial lake^ more than a mile in length, and about one-eighth of a 
mile in breadth. The lake is crossed by a bridge of nine archesi 
300 paces in length, and ten feet wide, built of white marble. 
Thislske is represented by the Missionaries as '^ a most enchanting 
place.'' 

Near the western gardens is a temple consecrated to the* 
discoverer of tiie silk wonuj reputed to have been the wife of 
the Emperor Hwang-te, who, according to Chinese history, 
reigned long previous to our era. The empress, and other great 
ladies of the court, assist in tending the worms, in order to encou- 
rage this branch of industry. The moveable tjrpe printing office 
is on the east side of the gardens ; these types were formerly cast 
in copper, like so many seals. In the reign of Kang-he, a collec- 
tion of books was printed with these types, forming in all 10,000 
sheets, which is bound into 600 volumes. 

The imperial city contains a great many palaces, temples, and 
other public edifices, independent of those noticed here. The 
Boman Catholic Missionaries reckon the number of palaces alcme 
in this division, and in the forbidden city^ at two hundred ; " each 
palace large enough to accommodate the most wealthy European 
nobleman I'' In the third and outer inclosure, which constitutes 
the remainder of the northern division, are situated five of the six 
supreme tribunals of the empire ; the Board of Civil Office ; the 
Board of Revenue; the Board of Bites; the Board of War ; the 
Boprd of Public Works ; and the Board of Punishments. 

At the distance of about ten miles west and north-west from 
the city are several extensive gardens, with thirty distinct places 
of residences for the emperor and the officers of state, whose pre- 
sence is occasionalljr required. Each of those constitute a con- 
siderable village, which are occupied by eunuchs, servants, and His 



PEKING AND TIEN-TSIN. 17 

w 

majesfy's ftftifioers : but tlieae imperia! 9.bode6 w^arcely detwr^ 
appellation of palaces. All the palaces of the emperor are filled with 
ennuchs^ who are required to look after the gardens, and attend 
011 tihe haMQi. 

Pddng is sustained by its being the seat of government. It 
has BO tnkde, except tiliat whieh is produced by the wants of its 
numffl^HS inhabitants, who are said to amount to between two and 
three xniBions, including those that live in the suburbs. The 
country around Peking is less productire than many other parts 
rf China. The provisions and manufactured goods recraired by 
the inhabH»nts are conv^ed by the Grand Canal. Beef and 
mutton ttre brM^t from MongoHa \ and coals from the mountains 
of the north-west. A considerable poriSon of Ae taxes levied 
upcAi the produ^ons of the whole empire, is paid in kmd, and is 
kese stored up ; the amount of rice alone in these granaries, at one 
portion of ttie year, is enormous ; but they are often empty before 
tihe new crop is gathered, so that a great many die for want of 
food. The large estabGshment di the emperor, and the numerous 
pcarscHis iii liie emplo^ent ^ the government, who are paid out 
cf ^e pubMc revenue, absoib a great portion of the graiit. 

'Ken-tsin, c&ttiated in the province of Chih-le, on the right bank 
of the Pj^o, about thirty miles up the river, is the emporium of 
tiie capital, not two iaepl journey from Peking, and is one of 
tiie richest trading plaees in the empire. The junks of Siam, 
CochiH-China, and the south of China Proper, (Keang-nan and 
Hnn-tung), may be semi here ixxt miles together, as dose as they 
can possibly stow, fi*om June to October. Near the city, the 
Great Canal joins the Peiho, and thus it is the resort of some 
thousands of grun junks. The chief article for sale here is salt, 
whSch may be seai ]^ed in mounds for miles, on the north side 
of the river; it is chiefly procured in the eastern and sotrthem 
pitmnces, several thousand boats are constantly engaged in its 
transport. Mr. Barrow calculated the quantity he saw in 1816, to 
be fflt hundred mOUons of pounds in weight. 

The land in <3«> vicinity yields few productions, and the only 
articles manufaettGred are a coarse kind of woollen cloth, tapestry, 
and glass. Wodlens and frtrs are large articles of import, and all 
transactions are paid for in silver and in bitls of exchange on the 
southern provinces. The few privileged salt merchants who reside 
here live in the style of princes. The city, with afl its wealth and 
extensive trade, has a miserable appearance, from the government 
prohibiting the tbse of bricks in biadldixig theiB houses. Tien-tsin 
ought to have been one of our consular ports; and by prudent 
aegotiadon we may yet be enabled to establish a trade there, to 
supply Beiking and Tartary with our manufactures, and especially 
with woollen doths, which are worn for six mopths, at least, by 
those who do not use frirs, skins, oft wadded garments. 



18 
' I / CLIMATE OP CHINA. ' 

• ■ ' • > 

Thcj varied latitude and elevation of China must necessarily pro*, 
duce great difference of temperature ; but China, being situated on, 
the eastern side of a great continent, is subject to the usual ex- 
tremes of heat and cold. Peking is safd to be most salubrious ;: 
the frost usually sets in about the middle of December, and remains 
for about two months. The heat in June and July is very great ;: 
in September the thermometer is 96 in the shade, yet this month) 
is considered the most pleasant in the year. The refreshings 
showers that fall during, ithe hottest weather mijbig^te the direfuL 
effeq^9^;tlejntfi^se.be9.t; alto^ethe?: the climate. of China may 
be *a\ci , tp ,])e ,as varied as its surface. The.rivcrs of the northem> 
provj^cqs, fljBL^ p,ajr.ticivWl^ Yellow Eiver, are. covered with ice, 
(w1>^q|^ b^qpVfis anajrticle of commerce) and compau,nication to the. 
inter^pr.ii* stppped by the frqst. Europeans who have liv^d in China 
for years, feel the cold weather much more penetrating than what, 
is ^p^f^epL(?ed. iu Europe, which is accounted for by the large, 
quantities ,of x^tj;^ with which the earth is charged^ The heat ia 
suuu^er.cj^uses, in the south, a dampness on the w,»lls and pillfo-s, 
of mp^t l^fiildin^. Canton and Macao are the only portions of 
Chii)ifi.{iia.iWl^ch Europeans have had a long opportunity of judgingv 
pf thp, climate ; and it appears that 70° of Fahrenheit is the average 
temp^rajture of Canton and Macao : October and April give nearlyr 
the mean heat of the year. Vegetation ceases fron?. the first week 
in Ji[o^mber to February, during which period scarcely any rain» 
falls. In the month of May the fall of rain has exceeded eighteen 
inches, being a fourth of the year. On the whole, the climate of 
China Proper is much the same as that of Asia in general. The 
number of people met with of an advanced age in the northern pro- 
vinces, is the best proof that the air is salubrious and bracing ; it 
neither approximates to the rigour of the northern regions, nor to 
the wasting influence of the southern. The tropical monsoons do 
not extend much beyond Canton City. The ty-foons only occuir 
during the hottest months, about August or September: they are 
equally, as destructive as the West Indian tornadoes, the extensivei 
sea-coast appears to conduct the wind. Along the extensive chan^ 
nel of Formosa, N. E. winds are prevalent for full eight months 
out of twelv^e. The winds in the interior are conducted by ^q 
vast cl^ns of mountains. 

CHINESE DEPENDENCIES. 

TJ^e provinces or countries dependent on or contiguous to China 
are so little known that a connected statement may be useful. : 

Soungaria and Eastern Turkeston, called Chinese Tartary, is 
separated from China by the Teenshan, or Celesti^ Mountains. 
The district extends from lat. 47° 30' N. to 33° 8lO\ and. from 82° 



DEPENDENT PROVINCES OF CHINA. 19 ' 

23' W. of Peking to 42^ 25', It is bounded on the N. by the' 
Altai Mountains, which separate it from the Kirghis territory, the 
Chamor Mountains, and River Irtish ; on the N. E. from the 
Mongolian district, Oulai-Soutai ; to the E. it borders on Kansuh, ' 
in China Proper ; the Kwanben and Kobi separate Turkestan from 
Tibet ; and the Belour Mountains from Buckharia. 

The whole of this territory, up to the year 1772, was in the pos- 
session of the Kalmucks, or Eleuths; and each district was 
governed by a chief (turah). The Emperor Keen-lung conquered, 
and successfiiUy governed the whole province. In 1833, a descend- 
ant of the ancient princes, Jehangir Khojeh, took advantage of 
the unpopularity tf the Chinese government, and roi^e in rebellion, 
aided by a lai'ge body of Khirgiz, and 8,000 trbops from' the Khan 
of Kokan. Kashgar was taken from the Chinese^ whb, it "j^^ said, 
lost a large army. One victory followed another, so that thb'whole 
of the territory was in Jehangir's possession for more thati seven 
months. 

From the tyranny and oppression practised hf the new' ruler, 
he became unpopular; and the Chinese returning with a large 
force, Ishak Khojeh, a chief of some Kashgar tribes, betrayed his 
ally to the Chinese, who sent him to Peking, where hfe was exe- 
cuted. The betrayer was made Prince of Kashgar by the Emperoc 
of China; and on visiting Peking, the following year, never re- 
fumed. He is said to have been poisoned, the government being 
afraid of his influence. 

Chinese Tartary contains many towns, the chief are : Yarkand, 
Kashgar, Oksei, Ele, Yengi Hissar, Ooch Turfan, and Koneh Turfan, 
(called Hami,) Gummi, and Lopp. 

Yarkand is the capital of a large territory. The population of 
Yarkand is said to be 80,000 families : there are resident in Yar- 
kand 200 Chinese merchants ; but many others visit it at stated 
times. A considerable number of Tungani merchants are perma* 
nently settled there. The Tungani are Mussulraans, and said to 
be descended from the soldiers of Alexander the Great, who J)ushed 
his conquests as far as Solar. (Tungani signifies ''left behind,^^ or 
" looking back.^') It has two forts of large extent ; one of them sur- 
rounded with a mud wall. There are 300 Tartar, and 600 Chinese 
soldiers. Horse-flesh sells for the same price as mutton. Yarkand 
is surrounded by a number of towns and villages, which ai'e very 
populous. Traffic is very active, as Chinese traders from Shanse, 
Shense, Keagnan, and Chekeang, proceed thither to meet traders 
from various countries not governed by China. 

The productions of Yarkand are wheat, rice, barley, and a variety 
of seeds, from which oil is extracted. Fruit and vegetables are very 
abundant. Raw silk is cultivated in large quantities : but the 
staple article is the wool of the shawl goat (akhehah) ; the dumba, 
sheep with a large tail, is abundant. The celebrated jade-stone is 
found neaap Yarkand in large q\iantities. About 10,0(X) lbs. weight 

c 2 



20^ DSPSNDlNCIBS-^KASHCrAm^ BIS. 

of the tffMimm yu is tent aomuall^ to tiie Sra{ieiOT> from a nrigh- 
bouring moimtain. Private individuak are prohibited tindiiLg iu 
this gem. The customs produce 85^000 taels of silver anntrallj; 
80 taels of gold^ 85^000 sacks of cotiii 600 ndeasiires of oil, and 
liS4iO taels for military expenses. The Maholnedans furnish 67,569 
pieces of linen, 16,000 lbs. of cotton, 1,400 linen sadcs, 1,800 
hempen rojpes, and 8,000 lbs. of copper ; all of which is sent to 
Sle. 

, Kashffor is a large frontier town on the N.W. extremity lof 
Se«Yu, beyond the snowy mountains, distant about five days' 
journey from Yaikand, and was the ancient capital of the province, 
until the late rebellion, since whidh time it is declminrgi The city 
oontaMs' aboat 15,000 inhabitants. There ore tJonMantfy 8,000 
Chinese troops ousfrtered in and aroond the city, it has also an 
Usbedi 'obie^ wit^ Ji nominal authority. The Ohiiiese government 
keep arclbse watch on the Khan of Kokan. The country is fertile : 
the MahfOmedans contribute every year 8,600 smaU carpets^ 8,600 
taels ofMvar^f 14,000 sacks of grain; and 10,000 pieces of linen; 
aU of whMh'are sent to Ele. I^ge quantities of gold and silver 
brocades are manufactured and sent to the emperor* {Merchandise 
pays a'CUStodbnittty of one^enth. There are eight towns dependent 
on the (^hief officer of Kashgar. 

Yengfi Hhmr lies half way between Yarkand and Kuhgar* 

Okm is N.E. from Yarkand, and distant about twenty days' 
caravan travelling. It is a large commercial marl, for the produce 
tions of China and Russian Ta;rtary. Coined silvier il the circu- 
lating medium (tankeh). There are 2,000 Chinese troops stationed 
here. The population of the town is Said to be SO,(XX) families. 
The country aroUnd produces great abundance (k provisions; 
there are large herds of cattle, sheep, camels, and horses; th^ 
Hahomedans collect from every quarter for trade> and much com- 
fort prevails among the people. 

Eela or Ele is situated N. of Oksu, distant twenty*>five days' 
journey, and forty from Yarkand. It is a walled town, and is thd 
penal settlem^it of China. The climate is destructive to the eon* 
stitution of the Chinese; a Tartar geneial has charge of the dvil 
as well as military administration. 

Kouehe is N.W. of Oksu, and S. of Ele, a)ld thiree monltbs' 
joum^ ftom the Russian frontier. The inhabitants are diiefly 
Kalmtdcs, who follow a pastoral life. Great quantities of caittie 
are reared. It is called the eastern gate of China. 

OoM Tuirfan is two days' joulrney from Yarkand. Konih Tui&tty 
^ied Hami, two months' journey fix>m Yarkand, is a place of 
great trade in all kinds of merchandize; it is governed by two 
great officess and 1,000 soldieri^, and is four h^m drcumference^ 

^ The Chinese ht or measure of distance, varies in the north and south of China, 
ihoie of the south heing the longest : 200 le are said to be equal to ft degree '^ htitude. 



£e^ Is two mtmiWjojxme^ firom Yarkand^ wid is ialudHted b j 
Cbinese princdpally'. 

Cftmmi lies between Yarkand and Eelchi (in Eboten). 

Khoten. Tbi9 country ccmtains many Iforge towns, Karakash, 
Selcbi^ and Kinrea^ witii many otbars. Karakanh is the capital, 
within ten daya^ journey from Yarkand, and twenty days' from 
Tibet. It is governed by two Chinese Umbauns, or reaidesita, to 
wbom are subordinate two Usb^ck Earims ; one in Eelchi, and the 
other in Kirrea. l%e taxable subjects are estimated at 700,000. 
The military force is 2,000. The country is flat, and the soil yerj 
piodu0ti?e. The ¥u (jade) is found in considerable Quantities. 

EeleM is twdre dayai' journey from Yarkand* . . 

Kirrea is about five days' joum^ from Eetchi. Tho Chinese 
govemm^at work the gold mines h^, and monopoUfle the pro- 
duce. The sand of the river is said to ocmtain a large piortion of 
gold. Q3ie commercial intercourse is with Yarkand, mA is very 
considerable in ^Ikj goM-dnst, grapes,, raisins, &a» C^rafwos come 
Qrom the Bussian frpntier md £ela, Oksn, and Koacboj.aiad. bring 
Inroad doth, brocades^ furs, and steel; and take m rdtaiim, tea, 
rhubarb, sal-'ammoniac, &a 

About ten d^s' journey from Okju are two very kig^. moun- 
tains ; the valley between them is covered f(Hr a considerable depth 
with sa^amrertniac During the eruptions, (the natiiv^es ^sall it 
God's fire), the salramnumiao &Us like a mist, and in winter b&f 
cemes cryi^tallijded. 

Near Yarkand is a river called Zurufshan, which is frozen over 
tiiree mmiths in the winter. 

Chinese Tartary is subject to the ei^tremes of cold and heat; but 
except on the mountains snow is never seen in the capitaL Bain 
does not fi^ more than three or four times in the year. 

About the year 1882 the country was much rav^ed by earths- 
quakes and the cholera. 

We know very little of this region, whidi separates China 
Proper from the Bussian territories, and may ere long be the 
battle-field between the two empires, if Peking be made the '^ Con^ 
stantinople,'' or place of intrigue, for the Muscovite policy. 

The government of Soungaria and Turkestan is of three kinds i 
— 1st. In the easternmost diatricts of 3oungaria, Barkonl, and 
Qrountdbd, it is much the same as China, and these districts have 
beea incorporated with the province of Kansuh; 2nd, In the west^ 
em districts js^und Ele, where the Chinese convii^s are sent, it is 
strictly military, being occupied by Mantchou troops^ who are 
considered as inhabitants of the soil ; they are commanded by a 
general and subordinate officers, whose authority extends to the 
eastern dirtricts, and to Turkest^m ; in Turkestan, the government 
is left in the hands of the native nobles, who are Begs of different 
degrees of rank, under the control of Chinese residents at the 
l^riiicipal cities. 



'Hi MONGOLIA BSPENDSNCY. 

MoNdotXA. — ^The eastern botmdary of Mongolia, is the I'chitclii- 
har district of Mantchouria ; to the N. it is separated from Siberia' 
by the Altai Mountains ; to the S. it has the Chinese Great Wall ; 
to the W. it borders on the government of Ele and Kan-suh pro- 
vince. It is situated to the N. W. of Tibet, whilst Kokonor stretches 
along the western boundaries of Sz-chuen province. It extends 
from lat. 34'' to 55^ N., and from east of Peking, 5° to 20*^ W. ; it is 
about 1,400 miles in length, and 1,000 in breadth. 

The government of Mongolia remains, for the most part, in the 
hands of the native princes. The male population is enrolled, and 
formed into bodies called Ke, the same as the Mantchou troops, 
who are called Pa-ke. Each ke is under a tchassak, or dzassak, 
who is hereditary. The tchassaks are all nobles. The ke, or stan- 
dards^ are united into corps, over which a commander-general 
and a deputy preside. There are six such corps in Inner Mongo- 
lia, four in Outer Mongolia, and eight between Kokonor and Ou- 
liasoutfd on the Russian frontier. The ke are sub-divided into 
companies. In a few districts in Mongolia, in place of the tchassak, 
either 'gtoerals or residents are put at the head of the government. 
There are two residents in Outer Mongolia, at Kourun, for regu- 
lating -the intercourse of the Chinese, Mongols, and Russians. 

Notwithstanding their anxiety, the Tartar government are quite 
ignorant of the amount of the population of the Mongols. Each 
Mongol prince engages to furnish to China from four to twenty 
squadrons, each consisting of 150 horsemen. Taking thirteen 
squadrons as an average for each banner, it appears that the 
forty-nine banners of the southern Mongols, or Kalkas, formed a 
total amount of 260,000 men ; and eight banners of the Tsakhars, 
which are estimated at 24,000 men. This return was made after 
the great struggle between the Soungarians and Chinese ) ever since 
that period (1696) the Mongolians have had uninterrupted peace, 
and the population must have increased. 

It is said there are at least 500,000 tents, each of which contains 
a soldier \ reckoning four to each family, the total population would 
be 2,000,000. 

In the northern part of Mongolia there is an abundance of tim- 
ber, such as the pine, fir, larch, and poplar ; the elm is very com- 
mon. ^ The Selengar, Orchou, Iro, Khara, and other rivers abound 
in fish; such as salmon, sturgeon, trout, pike, and various other 
kindt.' The quadrupeds are wild boars, wild horses, bears, wolvi^S, 
haresl,' sables, foxes, and squirrels. The birds are cranes, geeWBi 
ducks^ dndls, and swans. The horse is small, but strong. All 
1^ cAm&k of Mongolia have two humps ; those of Gobi are veiy 
large and strong. The sheep, which are all white, constitute tllQ 
riche^ Of the 'Mongols, and supply them with milk and meat, their 
only 'Subsistence. Millet, barley, and wheat, are sown in small 
quantities. 

MANitmmjRTA. — ^The Mantchous, who now govern Chi^a, ai^ 



MANTCHOUBIA DEPENDENCY. tZ 

8sid to be of Tongouse origin; and have scarcely existed n^i^ tiian 
tliree centuries as a distinct and independent nation. Their coun- 
try is mountainous, and barren^ and thinly populated. It was for- 
merly divided among a number of petty chieftains, who ' seldom 
remained long at peace with each other. Hence^ the people be- 
came more hardy and vigorous than their neighbours^ the Chinese ; 
and at a period when the empire was torn by dissensions be- 
tween the imperial princes^ and revolts among the people^ a Mant- 
chou chieftain began to attack China, over which, after thirty 
years^ warfare, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mant- 
chous obtained the dominion they now hold, under the title of the 
Tat'Smg dynasty. 

The Mantchou territory is divided in three prpvin^s^, , viz. : 
Shihgking) or Moukden (the . ancient Leaoutung) ; 2. Kirln ; and 
3. Kihlung-keang, or Tsitsihar. The first of these borders on 
China, Mongolia, and the gulf of Pechilee, or pf Leaoutung ; the 
second on Corea, and the sea of Japan ; and the third, on Siberia 
and Mongolia. , , 

Mantchouria is situated between 29° and 55° north lat.and from 
the meridian of Peking to 30° 20' E. To the north it borders Si- 
beria, from which it is separated by the Daourian Mountains ; the 
Hiver Kerbechi constitutes the natural boundary. The boi^ndary 
line between Mantchouria and Mongolia is a wooden wall, irxinning 
from the Great Wall along the N.E. boimdaries of Leaoutung; 
the frontiers take then a N.W. direction, along the Songaria and 
other rivers, to Kobi, and the territory of the Kalkas. On the E. 
it borders on the channel of Tartary and the Japan Sea; on the S., 
the Yellow Sea and Corea. The extent from N. to S. is about 700 
miles ; from E. to W. 900. The principal rivers are the Amour, or 
Segalien, Songari, the Noun, or Nonni, and Ousouri. The Sega- 
lien rises in Mongolia, and forms the boundary between Mongolia 
and the Siberian province of Nertchinsk. The Songari rises in the 
Chang-pih-shan, near the northern frontier of Corea; running 
NJJ.by.E. it unites in lat. 47° 50^, long. 16° 10' with the Sega- 
lien. . The Nonni rises near the inner Daourian Mountain, imd 
£b11b into the Songari. The Ousouri rises in the Seih-hih-tih 
Mountains, and falls into the Amour. 

The lakes of Mantchouria are the Hin-ka, situated in Kirin ; 
the Hoo^rien and Pir, and several smaller ones. The Seih-hin-tih 
Mountains lie along the sea-coast. The Daourian Mountains are 
bjcanches of the Stanpvoy chain. These mountains fca*m the 
nprthem boundaries: they are high, and are covered. TOtb perpe- 
tcial snow* JBetween Leaoutung and Corea are seveml G/lkBft high 
mountains. > i t t .* 

. , The description of Mantchouria as given by the Bmp^rqr Keen- 
lung, may be correct, but it has been greatly improved since the 
present dynasty came on the throne. He commences thus : '' In 
aspaceiof ten thousand /e (Chinese mile) you find a avocesisioDi of 



hfiSi^^ a^YiAwii p«x>died lands anid waU ungated territociesy 
j^tiy^^ mmfi iiQjpetopw tQR«ait9> grueefiil streana^ tmiliBg plaint^ 
wid fiscetits impeo/etrabte to the la^a of the aim. The hxm Movn- 
tain and the Ornamented Moimtam ere seen firom a great diatanoe. 
Wheat retorna the labour eKp^sded on it one himdred*fi>ld ; firoits 
are produced in great- abimdioioe. Qm^aeng grows on all the 
mountaina. Leaoutung exports large quantitiea of wheat, P^mi^ 
rice^ |a^ rhubarb*'' ^e piq^ulatiion are returned at 948,000, 
which ia considered too little. The Chineae residents &r ontnuxn- 
ber the MantchouSj who are both proud and indokxit. 

Moukden^ the 9apita\» ia buUt on an eminenoe^ na lat. 4lf S&, and 
7^ llf p. jot PekivgW; Great, efforta have been n>ade. bj the Chineae 
^ox^x&iff^ iff XQak/a.thia i^liifge. and alegant tnfy. 

Kin-choo is a considerable emporium, in lat. 40^ lO', long. 4P 56' 
£,of^e]f^.' A^ amiMrket,itruiluhi^fordriiga,pctta,aiMlflour; 
upw^aa<^ 1000 junks obtain cargoea. Kae-rdioo, in the neigh- 
bourl)po4 o^ the capital, in lat 40"" SO', long. 6^ £. of Peking, ia a 
placf pf SYf!^ trade ; the produce a£ the surrounding conn^ is 
collect . herq, ,a|A^ exported to Fo-keen, Canton, and Keang-nan, 
In i^^jse^sofl^^ 4!he mercantile activity is very great : the town ia 
nearl}^!,^ht,rwlea from the sea, and the merchandiao is sent 
tHt^)^.bjr 4pv3e8 and ^arts. I^g*hwaiig-ching ia the only eu^ 
poriuu]^ bbtv^e W Mancbouria and Coreab The Goreana are per* 
niitto4r ^^. i*^ 1^^ purpose of exchanging their paper and raw 
produ}^,ibr, C^ese aoann&oturea. The Cosean./coinimeme ia ao 
much, !:^f ttered by reatrictiona and heavy duties, that the trade ia 
almost stai^onary, < The Chinese merchants have engroaaed nearlfr 
all the comm^ce of the place. 

The government of the provincea of Mantchouria conaiata of a 
supreme government at MoidLden, and tfazee provincial govern* 
menta* That of Moukden is the same as in China Proper, while 
that of the oth» provinces is wh<dly military. Tbe psovinee of 
AbmJidea. indudea two departmenta, that xi Fungteen^^Goo, the 
metroMlitan department, and Hingking, or Kinch(m4oo. Theae 
ai^ ^HIH^vided into chow and heen diatricta, aa in China. The 
Ckjr jq$ Mp^kd^n ia not under a che-foo, but one of higher rank, 
caUed,£QiOryuen, who cooperatea witiii one of the Boards in me govern*' 
mient^ of. j^he mietrepolitan department. Hia aaaistant has tiie direc- 
tu^^^j^ literary branch of the administration. 31ie Hiree eastern 
pi^i^c^/^ukden, Eirin, and Tsitaihar, are undhsr the govern* 
i^^iof^ g^Mvali who ia alwaya a Mantahou* EUa subordiaete 
oj^%Mftji3§u^eMi^ at the head of each princqml dsii* 

eion of the provmce. Snboidinate to theae an gaitiaon officeia^ of 
^i^^^.^fMf^ a/cooraing to the importance of the ^tricta imder 
thaopif) ^eae'd^legate their authority to offioera, or>aaai8tant dileo* 
tqRs.o iTtii^i'frwfeierl are under a seporate dasa of officen* , 

« The-ti^mffration to Mantcheuna^ from the prorinea «tf Skun* 

i^ so^tfaa^ in afew years^ there waiU'votiie aapA 



TIBBV nBPflMSBHCT. 96 

ineultiTfltod. The •umiMrs ara abort, but rery hot. 1h& cold 
weather commeKiees in Octob^, and the whole countrf is one sheet 
of ice until March. The changes of heat to cold are sudden; 
within a few hours the thermoeoLeter falls fit^i 40^ to 10°. Emits, 
and even tropical prodncti(»ui, are grown to perCsction. The 
Chinese and Mantchoo languages are in use; the latter is (lie Ian* 
gnage of the court. 

Sagalien Island, or Tahoka, on the coast of Mantchonria, is repre- 
sented in Chinese maps as an island, witii a small islet between it 
and the main land. Late travellers represent the intenrening 
water ta be so shallow, tiiat the natives ford it. On the ncnrUiem 
dde of the mouth of the river Amour, the Tartar*Chinese have a 
town, and general mart (Taetaleho)^ to which the CSunese resort, 
and carry on a large trade. 

The extent of i& rivers which disembogue at €be mouth of tiie 
Amour, jb amaring; and all the principal cities of eastern Tar- 
tarj are aocesirible by than. They extend to upwards of 80^ of 
los^gitude. The lirer, nearest the sea, runs N.E. and has two 
forked branches; the one in the E. and W. direction, and the 
other in the same dhreetion, nearly, as the trunk or stem; in Eu- 
ropean maps, it is called Songari. The st^oi and brandi Songari, 
whidi comuMmicates with Eonn XJla, and Ningkuta, the principal 
dttes in Mantdiou Tartary, the Chinese call Hwan-tung-keang, 
and the Japanese give the same name to the great stem wUdi 
eaken the sea at Okotsk. The biandi whidi Hes E. and W. 
extends beyond tile Bussian city Nipeha, and is called Hilung- 
keang (Duq^on Bivor). This is the Amour of the Bnsttana^ and 
the Sagalien of the Tsrtars. 

TIBET DEPENDENCY, 

TiBBT may be considered as comprehending all tiie tract of 
ooontry from the eastern boundaries of Cashmere to the frontiers 
of Kokonor, from long. W. of Peking IS"" to 42"", and from lat 28^ 
to 85^, Ladhak iniduded. Its eastern frontiers are Sefan, Kokonor* 
and Tnrkitttan ; its northern, the government of Ele and Oreat 
Bttkharia; iUi southern, Nepaul, Sikkim, and Bootan; ii(s wostem, 
Bukharia and Cashmere. Its divisions are two. Anterior and 
UJteriiCHr Tibet; by the Chinese it is called Se-tsang. Anterior 
Tibetp calkd LasM, jb the most eastern part; it b<»dani upon 
ClduBfly its capital ia Laasa, and it contains eight cantons. TJItmor 
Tibet, called Tes4ioo, Loomboo, and the Umdes, contafais six 
cantons, all situated to the west of the cajdtaL 

LiLSSA, in ao^ 4a' north latitude, the chief city of Anterior 
Tibet, 18 sitaaied in an extmisive valley, which is forty k from 
N. to S., and about 460 k from E. to W. Under tUs name 
is naderitoed all the country Tuiba, which runs eastward to 
KaadM, 4lie gmater part of winch is incorporated with China. 



26' LAB^A/ CAFIVAL OV VtBET. 

Ther diftfinct of: Lassa is bomtded on: the east by lihe'pikivince o£ 
SfeeMchileii> and Yun-nan ; in China proper^ on the N.E., by Ko^ 
konor; on the N. by the Hwang-ho, or Yellow River; on the- 
W. by the Western Sea, or Lake Terkiri; on the S. by Tako. It 
is stated that the numerous temples and splendid edifices, noble 
streets^ and large market places^ prove it to be one of the most 
flourishing cities of the West. 

• : The Tiext considerable city in Tibet to Lassa is Jiga-gounggar^ 
in the province of Wei, 104 le S.W. of Lassa, which contains 20,000. 
families. Its position is 29° 58' N. lat. 

The government of Tibet, like Turkestan, re;nains in the hand^ 
of native authorities, but with an inferior degree of control on the 
part of the Chinese residents. The chief native authority lies in the 
dalai lama for Anterior Tibet, and in the bantchin*erdeni lama for 
Ulterior Tibet; both these have secular deputies. There is a 
Chinese resident at the court of each lama, who is consulted in all 
important affairs. There are^ also feudal townships, called Toosze^ 
and some Mongols in Tibet, entirely under the authority of the. 
residents. 

• There are said to be upwards of 60,000 soldiers in Tibet; at 
Lassa, 3,000 cavalry; 2,000 in Dzang; 5,000 in Ngari; 1,000 in 
Koba ; 3,000 in Tardzi, Landzi, Lanmautso, and among the Mon*« 
gols living in black tents in Ngari. The troops aare recruited by 
taking one man out of ten or five ; the same with horses. 

• FoRficosA, (''the beautiful island'^), or Tewan, is about. 300 miles 
longi A chain of mountains runs through its centre, from N. to 
S.; bjsyond this on both sides there is a continued flat, and towards 
the sea a barren alluvial sand, nearly four miles in breadth. The 
south>east point of Formosa is in lat. 21° 53' 30^' N., and in long. 
120° 57' E. Ke-lun^, the most northern point, is 25° 16' N., and 
121° 4' 3" E. from Greenwich. The channel which separates For- 
mosa -from the Chinese coast, is from 70 to 100 miles in breadth; 
about 24 miles from the island lie the Pang*hoo, or Pescadore 
islands^ The position of Formosa for trade is excdlent, within one 
day's sail of the port of Amoy, vrithin thirty leagues of the coast of 
China, about 150 from Japan, and nearly the same distance from 
the Philippines, Except Ke-lung harbour, there is no other that 
has yet been explored. Nieuhoff visited the island, and states that 
Pang^hoo-ting has several good harbours, and two commodious 
bays, whm ships may ride safely in eight or nine fethoms of 
^i^ter. The islands are numerous; the best is Fisher's Island 
(westewi)i 

Th& aborigines of the island of Formosa are divided into threes 
blisses ^^first^ those who have not only submitted to the* Chinese^ 
but hcDve advanced towards civili&Hition. This class was dnstniofced 
by the 'Dutch, when they had possession of the island ;r^ many. of 
themstiU have some slight knowledge of the languagey although a 
period of 170 years has elapsed since the Dutch oooupied ,paitt of 



. * ^TOtHOSA ISLAND. 27^ 

the island. The secothd dass is composed cxf Ebor^ttes> TvhoisiA)- 
mit to the Chinese authority^ jret retain their own habits 'aod^ 
customs; these are styled "taw natives.^^ The third pcMrtion ibk-* 
dudes all the unsubdued tribes, whose number is unknown* They 
are ruled by a diief and elders, and axe of a slend^ riiape, and 
olire complexion ; Irre in wretched huts, have no written language; 
or established religion. 

. Eormosa, together with the Pescadore islands, forms one foo, or 
department, of the province of Foo-keen, which is subject ta the 
foo-yuen of that province. The departments comprise six heen, or 
districts ; five of which are in Formosa, the other includes the Pes- 
cadore isles. Tae-wan, the chief district, is a narrow tract of land, 
in lat. 23^ N., and is considered equal to the first-class cities of 
China in wealth and appearance. Attached to it are twenty 
Chinese and three native villages. Its harbours are not good, one 
of the entrances being closed with sand. . To the north of Tae-wan, 
is Choo-lo-heen, which comprises one town, four Chinese and 
thirty-two native villages, with a tolerable harbour (Lo-kang) ; 
next is Chang-hwa-heen, which has one good town, fifteen villages, 
and 132 Ctinese farms, and 51 native villages. 

Tan-shwuy-heen has one town, 133 farms, and 70 native vil- 
lages. Fung-shou-heen lies in a southern point, and has one 
town. Tiie native' villages are 73, of which eight only are occu- 
pied by civilised natives. The Pescadore, or Pang-hoo, constitutes 
the sixth heen, or diskict. This cluster of islands, 36 in number, 
although barren, forms an important naval and military station for 
the Chinese government, who find it necessary to watch the in- 
habitants, as they have a reputation for lawlessness, occasioned it is 
said by the unjust extortions of the Mandarins, on the thousands 
of emigrants who come from Foo-keen, Canton, and Che-keang 
provinces. The eastern part of the island of Formosa is still in 
pos8es3ion of the native chiefs. The revenue of Formosa exceeds 
'1,000,000 taels of silver, and the whole population is between two 
and three millions of inhabitants. 

: The portion of Formosa under the government of China is most 
fruitful and healthy. The vast plains of the southern part may 
justly be called a garden. Every kind of grain and fruit may be 
produced on the island; but rice, sugar, tobacco, and camphor^ 
are the chief artides of e?[port. The number of junks employed 
in conveying rice to Fo-keen and Che-keang provinces is upwards 
of iSOO. For sugar, more than 70 junks are annually employed 
between the single port of Tein-tsin. The camphor is seii* to 
Canton, and the quantity is very considerable. Cattle, sheep, 
goats, and poultry, are abundant. The mountains' produoe'-gold, 
silver, dnnabar/ copper, and coal> of which latttersome eseellent 
speeimens have been recently sent to England. Formossi lexoteds 
Manilla. ttnd JmBk in the quantity* of. its exports; and the circu^* 
lating capital is in proportion to the commerce. — " 



28 POPULATION OP cmvAi 



The whole of the precediiig details miut necessarily he con- 
mdered as vague in many pointii; they axe deriyed from various 
sources, which will be particularized at the end of the work; and 
they are given rather as an incitement to further inquiry^ and as 
illustrative of the vastness and importance of the empire of Chin% 
than from any implicit reliance on their accura^. At any rate^ 
this imperfect description may awaken investigation, bjr showing 
what immense regions yet remain for exploration) and it is to be 
hoped for oommemal profit. 



CHAPTER II. 



POPULATION^—CHABACTBE,— MANNERS, &c. 



Thbbb is no country in the world where there are more opportu-* 
nities of knowing the amount of the poj^ulation than Clunai aa 
every district has its officer ; every street its constable ; every ten 
houses, its tything-man ; and every family is required to have a 
board always hanging up in the house, ready for the inspection of 
the regular officer, on which the name of every man, woman, or 
child, in the house, must be inscribed. There is even a law to 
constrain Chinese householders to give a faithful return. All per-r 
sons are required to be registered according to their several avo* 
cations^ 

When the master of a &mily, who holds land that is dbat^uible 
with contributions to the revenue, omits to make any entnr m the 
public register, he is liable to be punished with one hnndrea blows ; 
but if he possess no such property, with eighty blows. When any 
master of a family has strangers, who constitute, in fact, a distinct 
fEunily, he shall be punished with one himdred blows, if such 
strangers possess ta^taple property; and eighty, if not. In all cases^ 
the register must be immediately corrected. 

lbs reigning dynasty has adopted a system, that a reasonable 
poportion of money and grain shall be retained by each province 
or the use of the state, to meet the wants of the people : the 
government could not know the amount to be reserved, if they did 
not know the average amount of inhabitants ; so that, it seems 
most likely that it is to help the government, and not to impose 
on foreigners, that the ceusos is takeia. The following tsUe ia fisom 
Chinese authorities. 



I 



■ T • 



f- 



. r 



I J-' 



. 1 ,: . * 



, 4 -, 






' t 



ll ' 



. 0-f 



««"'l -J*U¥/<. .•'). '- J 



" V 



> ' . 






H- 



E 



ch 



IT 



»' 



> » # ■ » 






i'm'j .^ 



/ '• 



■■ » ".1 • ., . ■ ' 



.» » 



I • I ' . .' 



^»'-' 



. *■• 



I . 



3 




19 



9 

14 




• i/"i 



>6" 
35 
78 
W 
95 
20 
<19 

07 



I 

D 



US. 



D 

I 

r 



funditjVioD^ 



SeeF 



POPVLAtlON CENStrfttS. 



29 



DTHASTT. 


EMPEROR. 


TEAR OV 
RElGNi 


A. A. 


POPULATIOH. 


Ming 


Tae-tsoo 


27 


1893 


60,515,811 


TBing 


Shun-che 


IB 


1662 


21,068,600 


»f 


Kang-he 


6 


1668 


25,386,209 


99 


99 


49 


1710 


23,312,200 


W 


99 


50 


1711 


28,605,716 


>f 


Keed-lUHg 


18 


1753 


102,328,258 


If 


» 


57 


1792 


307,467,200 


if 


Kea-king 


16 


1812 


861,221,900 



Hie firsst petioA of 60,000,000 was under the peaceful rule of 
tihe old Ming dynasty. The fiBdling off in the second period may 
be occaisioiied by the sanguin&jfy wars that took place between the 
Tartars and Chinese, bdSore the accession of the former to the 
Chinese dynasty ; and from the want of knowledge of the state of 
the country, wmch the Chinese themselves were not inclined to 
give willingly to their conquerors j it may likewise be accounted 
for hr emigration, and because the Tartars could not reckon the 
people of the western and southern provinces as their subjects^ as 
they were not subdued for several generations: moreover, the 

E^ent dynasty levied a cajpitation tax and many evaded enrolntent. 
the year 1710 the capitation tax was annulled, and a Iimd tax 
anDibstiinted I and in year 1711, according to the census retumfl^ 
titere is an increase of upwards of 5,000,(XX), and it is very Hkely^ 
had Ihere been a return for the following year, there would have 
been four tunes as large an increase. The increase from 1711 to 
175S may be accouuted for by the increasing power of the Tartar 
dynasty, and partly by the facts above mentioned. The next in- 
crease is from 1753 to 1792, which seems enormous ; the length of 
peace that was enjoyed for years, and the encouragement given to 
cultivate waste hmos^ which the terrified people had abandoned, 
and now received bounties to cultivate and re-inhabit, render it by 
Ho means improbable. 

I^e increase from 1792 to ldl2 seems very incondderable when 
compared with former rears, scarcely one per cent, per annum; 
this may be tu^counted for by the large number of inhabitants now 
in the countiy, and as a matter of course, by emigration y and 
likewise^ in the opinion of Mr. Medhutst and others, by the iiilxo» 
dnction of the opium to an enOrmoas extent, sufficient to check 
population, for it ruins the constitution, the health, and energies, 
and cuts off in a few years all those that indulge in it. 

In the statement given to Sir G. Staunton, in 1795, b^ Chew- 
tarjin, a Mandarin of high rank, the population of Fokien pro- 
Tinoe is stated to be 15,000,000; and that of the whole empire 
1130,006,000. In the Append to the Report of the Anglo-Chinese 
Oolkge for 1829, it is stated, on the authority of the Tae-Ch^eng- 



80 LONGEVITY Of TflB'C»IM»9E. 

hwnf-teen, or collection of statutes of the Tae-CVheng dynasty, 
in 261 volumes, that the Emperor Keen-lung, in his 57th year 
(A,D. 1793), found the amount of the whole population to be 
807,467,200. 

The Jesuit Missionariesi and those who have traversed various 
parts of China, see no reason to doubt the accuracy of these 
statements : indeed, if we examine the amount of popidation in 
China, in proportion to the area of surface, the density of indi- 
viduals to each square mile will be found less than it is in Ireland, 
and not much greater than in England; 

Father Alvarez Semedo, a Portuguese, who resided tlventy years 
at Peking and various other parts of the empire, in his History of 
China, published in London in the year 1655, thus speaks of the 
populatioi;! : " I am amazed at th^ great population of this empire ;v 
it is not alone in cities, towns, and public places, but also in the 
highways, there is as great a concourse of people met with every 
day, as you may only occasionally see in Europe on some particu- 
lar 4estival-day : and by a reference to the general register-book, 
wherein only the common men are enrolled, leaving out women, 
children, eunuchs, professors of letters and arms, there are reckoned 
of them to be fifty-eight millions, fifty-five, thousand, one hundred, 
an^ fourscore/' 

China is not remarkable for longevity. . An examination was 
made in 1827, by the Emperor Kang-he, to ascertain how many 
persons were above seventy years of age, that they might be 
exempted from the public service and nourished by the state. 
Those of eighty, ninety, and one hundred were successively 
honoured with higher rewards. 

In nine provinces, containing 158,793,306 inhabitants, there 
were but 194,086 of seventy and upwards — which latter sum is the 
eight hundred and eighteenth part of the former. 

In sixteen provinces — the number of people at eighty years of 
age was 168,850; at ninety years, 9,996; and at or above one 
hundred years of age, but 21. Not a two-thousandth part of the 
whole empire reached the age of eighty years ; not the thirty-six- 
thousandth part, ninety years ; and only about one in seventeen 
million inhabitants reached the age of a century. 

Only three provinces evince tliis longevity ; viz. : Shan-tung, 9 ; 
Ho-nau, 5; Hu-nan, or Hon-quang, 4; Keang-nan, 3=21. 

^31 the Canton province, on a population of 19,147,030, but 
9,415 reached the age of eighty, and only 519, that of ninety 
years : none attained a century. 

' Amidst such a vast mass of human beings there must necessarily 
be a very great variety of individual character ; but the Chinese, in 
general, may be said to be mild, laborious, and patient. No occu* 
pation is considered mean, provided they can become rich by it ; 
, this desire for riches is so great that it is generally asserted they 
will lie and cheat any one with whom they have dealings. The 



CONDITION OF THE tEOPLK. il) 

vidtssitades of life are very marked : the children of meti who have? 
held the highest oflBces under the government, are often reduced; 
to poverty. The pooir aire divided into two classes : the labourer 
and the mendicant ; the latter are a most degraded class, resem-r 
bling somewhat the gipsies, and may be seen in the streets almost 
in a state of nudity; no one will shelter them, lest they should rob) 
the house. They sleep at night on bridges, and in public places,; 
being denied even the caves of rocks, lest they should die th6re,^ 
for, in that case, the proprietor would be obliged to pay the pfficer; 
whose duty it is to inter the corpse. The love of gambling is Saidr 
to be the cause of great destitution: the poorest labourer will, 
gamble for his breakfdst or dinner, and may be seen doing so at: 
the road-side. 

I visited varionisi parts of the country, and found the inhabrtants 
in the north of China much more civilised and social than thbse in. 
the south. Dr. Gutzlaff, who has examined a great portion of the> 
empire, thus writes of the population on the coast : — " I invariably 
found the people civil aad obliging, but for the most part poor and 
wretched, and dreadfally diseased. Books and medicines 'twere* 
received with avidity. What appeared most surprising was,, their 
submitting to sui^ical operations by barbarians.^' The villages a. 
few miles from the coast, visited by the medical MissionJurie.^, vrere> 
not much better than those along the poast. The housed, bunt oif 
red and white bricks, have a neat appearance at a distance; butt 
on entering theip, a bedstead and one or two stools constitute the 
whole of the furniture. . • 

The government, in theory at least, allot waste lands for the? 
poor; but local extortions prevent such proclamations as the follow* 
ing being carried into effect : — . . 

'' Loo, Governor of Canton, &c. &c. : ' 

" Choo, the Foo-yuen, &c. &c. a. p. 1834, ; 

" Hereby issue a proclamation to make known the regulations ta. 
be observed on commencing the cultivation of waste lands. In 
government there is nothing so important as a sufficient supply of 
food for the people. In villages the most honourable occupation 
is agriculture. In Canton province thieves and robbers are ex- 
ceedingly numerous, which no doubt have originated from the- 
want of a suitable employment. In endeavouring to eradicate ^viL 
practices, the first thing is to provide the means of subsistencq. 

'^ The plan is to invite poor people to locate themselves on waste 
spots of land, wherever they may find them, on hills or plains, and 
cultivate them in any way of which the land is capable, and for 
the cultivators^ sole benefit, without land-tax or quit-rent, or any 
charge whatever from the local officers. The land thus cultivated 
mSiy be liable to land-tax hereafter, but the land itself is to become 
the freehold estates of the occupants for ever. Government will 
give a grant or deed of occupation to the settlers. Only snaall lots 
are grantedj and none but poor people need apply. The local 



STATS OV TBI TOWW8 AND HOO«BS« 

mAgbtulM are strictly ohaiged nok to extort monfly from the 
setttem/' 

The Missiontriesi who tntreUed throof^ the piovince of Shau* 
tttng, iu 1887j tims write :•*<-'' We saw jua&mg of the sqnalid 
miseiy that was every whese to be met with in many cf the 
other piorinees. Hie aoen were sobnsty and apparently wdl fed 
and ehenfiil. We saw no beggars, and Tory few ragged people; 
tbeir clothing was (^efly cott^, sometimes doubled uid quilted $ 
most of the people wore shoes and stoekings* Some wore ooats 
made of skins, with the hair or wool inaide. Erei^ one carries a 
smokLog pipe^ and a bit of steel, and as tihe ground is covered with 
a kmd of qusartB) a light b easily proe a r e d. The females were 
pale-flioed, and had an unhealthy look, with any thing imt pleasing 
mabues. The poover sort of females woik in the fields up to their 
knees in md, aad widi troth may be said to <dmff out a miserable 
esdstenee** The auyority of the houses aa^e sbout thirty feet 
longi ten wide, and eight hi^. TbB streets ane from ten to 
twenirr £Mt wide, ranning paraUd to eadi other, oxdssed by narrow 
diity laass, j|9ach village is supplied with a templs ; small shrines 
may he sew m fields, with a simple inscription on them. The 
kwsea of the better dass are built of granitoj those of the poor, 
of mud. HbB people possess £bw of the oom&rts of life; neither 
tabloi <4iair, nor any article 9f ftimiture can be seen in the dwell* 
inffi of the poor.'* 

Nowhere did I obsenre great iodiTidusl wealth, proj^erty seems 
much subdivided. The Chmese buildings have a striking aiqpear- 
aaeoe, whidi is more fixmi their extent tiian their magnificmce. 
Those of the princes aad great men contain iota or six outer 
courts, in each of which is a separate building, with tiusee gates. 
Tlie ImOs set apart for receiving visitors are provided with chairs 
and tables; but there is an absence of all grandeur. The chambers 
upropriated for the females and childr^ are inaccessible to even 
t£e most intimate fiiend. The beds of the oputext ai!e famished 
in winter with curtains of double satin, and in summer with white 
plain taffety. The common people use curtains of linen, with 
mattrasses stuflbd with cotton; m the northern provinces, they 
deep upon tedi comtmcted cf brick. These beds are larger or 
smaller in proportion to the family. They are kept warm by 
means of a small itwe, placed on one side, in which a coal fire is 
Kghted, while a small fumiel, that rises above the roof, carries off 
the smdte. Some place over the bricks a mattrass, which is ee- 
moved in the day, and the bed becomes a couch, upon which the 
whole famify work. 

Among oAer indications of an altered state of society in China, 
1^ following lamentations of a Chinaman «t Whampoo may be 
quoted :---'' Xbe times ese changed, and the people are rapidly 
ffrowiDg worse. The people of firugal and honest habits are fast 
disappearing; a new and bad race is growing np» Formerly it 



THE €IUN^GH£W MBWi * -^ gS 

WR$ not the rage to. gaiu- v^alth, bat ivhcb a teafi'^afAM'ftrWb-^ 
sistence he retired, and thus gave an opportunity to 'c^t^^rs. 
Thxi%, \Yhea a ferrym&nluiid esirned saffioieiit in thir ni6l4iii^ to 
support him for ik^ &xy^ he retired/ luid tmKde «o6m- fdr 4)th^rst?^ha 
were not so fortunate* Tbot thirst fta? ^iflrtis *0'^eat, thPfiiilm 
people will work, both* day «ildr flight, imeA yfet ar# a*t iSati^td. 
Robberies, kidnappings md ke©pix»g the wefl-diifeposed in ^h.fm, 
are more and more^ftequent. The common crime is. <5«rrying off 
youi^ girls, MiA seUing them as slaves, unless ransomed by tlieir' 
fri^ids. These kidufcippers treat in the most open munn^r with their- 
parents, and« fix^a ijflice, whtobttJ^r^sg^i fipoktt 16i*of>100'd(fllftT«/' 

There isy hoin^rer, intidrdrfflBkfioeun t^ «hei«K«f^ kid^^een^ 
dition of the 'pel^I^'r;aAd^'^o 'ga^ieMi^^st^^tl^ MHi4«^fe4'to» 
pourtray them. iVin insftaaoe^ ti^'iheii (^'^(Dldt-^h^w ^if^'fh^ 
most industrious anS' i^depende^^t peopW in 0h^. * J 5lfe^' o<9^-' 
tial empire ''' has few* spots so remarkable as -^e-ifel^ritej^jp^tu-* 
ated betwe«i the MS" ahd UiT of lat., and th^ li&^' ^rf H^* 
of longitude. It is divided into three disitricts, ^i<fb6rife^^K^^^i 
ckoo {Ckm^ckew)y 9iho\it 54 miles in lengfli, «nd 1^ infc*#^&h; 
Cfumff'ChoOf 65 •miles in length, and 88 in brettdth;^ aM^^atr-* 
chooy 90 miles' in length, and 50 in breadth s iM Wo^'-^^hher' 
are the southiweAiemaflfos* ^arts of Pc*^d;. tlje-lattef,^-the 
easternmost ^f Gantoki* The mountatins ar^ barren- -.ik^ Jtifkcts 
along the sea-coast are sterile in the extreme^ and 0!Slj^-J4^Id%y' 
dint ©f ha*d 14)0ti« a "seanty crop of svweiePb ^pots^ofesy ; Witlpthe 
excqytion of ^sn^ani, thii^' e^OfiMtry h^ lio stc^d ai^^eie of-'^^rt ; 
the rice cultivaled is not sufficient f«r the consumption df« the 
population, which is immense. The territory, being indented, 'has* 
many good harbours, and nearly the entire of the maritime etei- 
meree of China is in the hands of the Chin-chew men. AlAiqst • 
the whole of the imperial and mercantile navy is manned' by 
natives of this territory, and there are not less than 150,000 sailors* 
amongst them. The number of fishermen is not inferior. • InHhe 
interior cities tiere are tens of thousands erf th^ natives of this ter-^ 
ritoiy ; they do not confine themselves to the coast. The bahk^fers 
of the capital, the pedlars, the actors in all hazardous u6S^- ; 
takings, are natives of Chin-chew. They cultivate the most bfa^eh 
soil, and may be seen perched on rocks, that would not iapparently 
yield a blade of grass ; yet, from those mountains and Toicks; by 
labour and attention, they extract three crops annually. - * -^ '^ 

In Canton almo^ every article of traffic is under their fflt^efe|Efon. • 
Thdy have pene^ated to the Woo B. t^a-hiUs, planted th6 Aikoi- 
regions with this shrub, and nearly engrossed its commeJ*ce; 
More than a million erf these people are scattered ov^r Chiiai ; the 
island of Haenan was reclaimed by them. Formosa has only fe 
the last two centuries become the scene of their industry; and is ^ 
now the most productive island in Asia. There ar^' about- two 
milfion ^f their tribe^ who, as pefesfwits'. and m^haftts, Jtai*-' pota^^^ 



di TRADING CHAEACTJSB OF PEOPLE. 

sfissed themselves of the fairest portion of that island. It is said 
that the fecundity of this tribe is so great, as to furnish a suf- 
ficient number of inhabitants for all the islauds of the Indian 
Archipelago; yet they have never been encouraged to emigrate in 
so large a number as to Formosa. The Chin-chew men, who 
inhabit Siam, Annam, and Tonquin, with . the other parts and 
isles of Southern Asia, cannot be less than two million. They 
are in those countries, as well as in all Chinese locations, the very 
soul of commercial enterprise. In examining the districts from 
whence these swarms issued, there is no diminution of the popula- 
tion; on the contrary, those regions are teeming with human 
beings. Thus, a district not larger than a county in England, 
pours forth thousands of colonists, in defiance of the laws of their 
country. The fecundity of population must be very great, which 
can establish colonies greater in extent some hundred times than 
the native land. It is not by the sword, but by the plough that 
they conquer: and they are still opening new roads for other 
needy adventurers, from China. 

It is truly observed, in an official report to the British government 
in 1837, that the Jews perhaps excepted, no nation is so much 
influenced by the love of gain ; and at the same time, so utterly re- 
gardless about the means to attain this end. The more wealthy 
classes absorb their very existence in trade. Commerce is the in- 
variable topic of conversation, the most important pursuit, the 
highest object of pleasure, and the goal of all their wishes. Trade 
is the first and last word in which all unanimously join, whilst the 
energies of mind and body are consumed in following up this bent. 
^ Trade is not here confined to one class of men, but to all ranks 
and ages. Scarcely can a boy lisp, when he begins to sell a few 
cakes, or a little sugar-cane. The poorest try to gain a subsistence, 
if it be only to dispose of a few rags. There is nothing in all 
nature which a Chinaman might not turn to advantage, and trade 
in. All recesses are ransacked to find a few trifles which may 
be sold to advantage, and he would rather procure a pittance in 
this way, than receive the money without displaying his inventive 
genius. 

The Chinese may justly be termed the pedlars of the world; 
wherever you go, there seem to be more sellers than buyers. 
Nothing can exceed their affability if they think you are going to 
purchase anything from them : they will refuse no money if they 
can be ever so little gainers ; they are therefore quite the reverse of 
the Japanese, who are rough, disobliging, and positive; and when 
they ask a price, will not abate their demand. But the Chinese 
turn every thing to advantage that offers, and undertake the most 
difficult things fpr the least hope of gain. 

The Chine|SQ maxim is, that he who buys is for getting things as 
c}ieap as he can, and would give nothing, did the seller consent to 
it ; upon this principle, they think they have a right to ask the 



CEREMONIAL AND CUSTOMS. 35 

greatest price. The dealer does not deceive, say they; it is the 
buyer who deceives himself. The buyer is under no compulsion ; 
and the profit which the merchant gets is the fruit of his industry. 

In all ranks of life, but more especially among the magistrates 
and officers of government, vivacity and activity are less esteemed 
than sedateness and deliberation ; gravity is considered as the test 
of wisdom, and silence of discretion. A magistrate should never 
attempt to joke, and should forbear to talk ; he should " resemble 
great bells, which seldom strike, and full vessels, which give little 
sound.'' He should never show his anger, as this would put the 
person that has offended him on his guard. If two persons meet 
they know, from the button on the cap, their respective ranks. K 
any of the poor people should fail to pay proper respect in meet- 
ing a superior, he is instantly ordered fifteen or twenty blows of 
the bamboo. 

Amusements, when resorted to, are either childish, or have re- 
ference to gambling. Kite-flying, and shuttlecock (played with 
the feet) are favorite pastimes with the men. Among the amuse- 
ments to which they are addicted, notwithstanding the doctrine of 
Buddah, is cricket-fighting. While the British are preparing for 
the Derby and Epsom, the Chinese are matching their crickets. 
About Midsummer the cricket fights commence ; and all classes, 
young and old, rich and poor, take part in this sport. The species 
selected is the male of the common gryUus campestris, which is 
found on the neighbouring hills ; their price varies from one cash 
to fifty dollars ; and the wagers on favorite crickets amount to an 
incredible sum. 

In the higher circles of society the mode adopted of cultivating 
friendship with foreigners (and probably amongst themselves) is 
the day after a visit is paid, to send a present of tea, fruit, 
and sweetmeats, in separate baskets ; the total of the lots being 
even, and the contents of each made up of an even number of 
packets ; a superstitious idea is very prevsQent against an odd num- 
ber. The contrary is practised on the occasion of a death in a 
family. If the present sent is of any magnitude in size, it is ex- 
pected that only a portion of it wiU be retained, and the remainder 
returned with your card as an acknowledgement. The persons 
who convey the presents must be handed a gift in money ; and not 
unfrequently three or four wiU accompany the gift, each of whom 
must get an equal sum. 

Ceremonial is the most essential branch of education, and is the 
study of a life. The master of a house meets an approaching 
guest half-way, with his head covered. At entertainments, the 
guest is always at the upper hand. If the guest is from the south- 
ern provinces, he sits on the right ; the northern, the left : the 
guest takes the right or left hand of his host, (according to the 
difference in north and south,) who consequently stands on the 
other hand ; they bow very low thi^e or four times, with their 

d2 



86 POLITE INVITATIONS. — GUESTS. 

hands towards the head ; some are so polite as to change places 
right and left on meeting. 

In the honse the guest is conducted to the upper seat, foreigners 
in preference to all others. The forms observed at departure are 
still more ceremonious, as the servants have their part to go 
through. After paying a visit, the visited sends his card, and 
messengers to enquire if the visitor has got safe home. The size of 
the card, or coloured paper, (some are a foot long and upwards,) in- 
dicates the rank and respect paid ; but a smaller card accompanies 
iht large, to shew independence. 

Interviews and social visits between officers of government, are 
conducted with minute regard as to ceremony and dress ; the offi- 
cial robes are always at hand, as they never appear to each other 
en d&habille ; nor do they travel any distance without them. 

An interview, after a long absence, is usually on the knees, or 
three bows with the fingers touching the gn>und. 

An invitation to an entertainment is not supposed to be given 
with sincerity, until it has been renewed three or four times in 
writing. A card is sent on the evening befco^e the entertainment ; 
another on the morning of the appointed day; and a third when 
every thing is prepared and nothing to do but sit down to table. 
A Chinese classftcal book prescribes the foDowing rules : " When 
you entertain any one, or eat at his table, pay the strictest atten- 
tion to decency ; be careful not to devour your victuals greedily ; 
never drink at long draughts ; avoid making a tioise with your 
mouth or teeth ; never sup up the broth that is left when every 
one is done ; nor testify, by exterior signs, the pleasure you receive 
from any particular kind of food or wine ; neither pick your teethj 
nor blow upon wine to cool it ; take smaU bits at a time ; chew your 
victuals well, and never let your mouth be too full. TBie ancient 
Emperors established it as a law, for those who might give enter- 
tainments, that they should salute each guest, separately, every 
time they drank.'' 

Previous to the Tartar dynasty, the Chinese allowed their hair 
to grow, both men and women, without ever cutting; and being 
almost universally black-haired, were called the black-haired people 
by foreign nations. When the Tartars obtained dominion, they 
mtroduced many changes, and among others, barbers, a calUng pre- 
viously unknown in China. At the first city taken by the Tartars 
a proclamation was issued, which declared that none of the inhabit* 
ants should foe killed, if they would cut their hair and beard, and 
use the Tartars' dress, via. : garments, or long robes, fklling down 
to the feet, with sleeves not so wide or large as the Chinese use. 
No diflference is perceptible between the male and female garments. 

As in all countries devoid of a true knowledge of God, supersti- 
tion has (Strong hold <mi the people. When the fistther of a family 
is at the point of death, they put a piece of silver to his moutli, 
and cover his nose and ears, which must really hapten his death. 



DEATHS AND BURIAL^. 37 

The moment life departs, they make a hole in the roof of the house, 
to permit the spirits that leave his body a free exit; then the 
priests are brought in, and prayers commence. A tablet is first set 
up (beside the coffin) to keep away evil spirits ; and beside it, on a 
table, a quantity of eatables, perfumes, and lamps. K the family 
are not too wealthy, every visitor is expected to bring some presents. 

The Buddhist priests call on the visitor to assist them in weep- 
ing and wailing; this lasts several days, until the priests, by the 
dint of prayers, make a breach in the " nether world,^^ for the es- 
cape of the departed spirit : tirhen the soul is released from purga- 
tory, the priests give it a letter to Buddah, which procures it a 
residence in the ^^ western heavens/' 

When the interment takes place, the corpse is dressed in the 
best clothes the family can afford. All who attend the funeral 
must be dressed in mourning (white), or, at least, some conspicuous 
part of their dress must be white. The body is laid in tlie tomb^ 
under the discharge of rockets and fireworks. 

After the interment all return to the house of th^ deceased, 
where feasting and enjoyment is carried to an excess. 

The doctrine preached by this sect, is that every man has three 
souls: the first comes to live in the body; the second goes to 
Hades ; and the third resides in the tablet which has been pre- 
pared for it. 

They regard the perpetuation of their names to posterity as an 
important matter. Daughters inherit nothing from theix parents,, 
and anything bestowed is in the nature of a present. The eldest 
son of the principal wife, or the grandson of this eldest son, if he 
be dead, becomes the head of the family at the death of the 
father ; it is his duty to support the other children of the two beds 
as if he were their father. If the principal wife has not had a son 
when she is fifty years old, the husband can choose as his heir the 
eldest son of aay of his other wives : but the eldest only. If there 
are no sons from the first or second beds, the husbtod can adopt 
the son of otne of his relations, provided he bears the same name as< 
himself. 

So stringent is custom, a Chinese is less the master of his 
own movements than any other part of mankind. When born, 
if a boy, he is taken care of; if a girl, she stands a chance of being 
drowned. Infanticide is not confined to the poorer clashes: as a 
proof of the existence of that crime, foundling hospitals ^are. erected 
HI all large towns to receive girls only, in which they are kept 
until they are fourteen years of age. Some contend that child ?aur- 
der does not exist to a great extent, in some provinces, as the fe- 
males are more numerous than the men in several districts* The 
crime, however, is not held in the abhorrence it should he. The 
first instruction of a ho^ consists in making obeisance 4imd pros- 
trating himself in company ; this ceremony is instituted at an ei^ly 
period, and not forgotten in old age. 



88 DECEIT. — WOMEN. — BIABBJA0E8. 

Bich and poor are polite in the extreme^ until their interests or 
passions are disturbed ; then they are equal to the savage, and 
their manners coarse and insulting ; but they are early taught to 
hide their real sentiments ; their politeness and meekness are only 
assumed, the better to enable them to overreach their fellows. Their 
minds are perverted by unmeaning compliments, and truth is sacri- 
ficed to gain their object ; deceit and hypocrisy seem the ruling 
passions of their nature. When a boy goes to school he is taught 
nothing but the classics of Confucius, as whatever was not taught 
by the ancients is not fit to be learned by any of the " sons of Han ; " 
by this means, the Tartars are better enabled to rule and oppress 
the Chinese. To attain this end, the system of education is the 
same all over the empire ; so that when all minds are tutored in 
the same mould, the restraining powers, when necessary to be en- 
forced, answer for the whole community. The officers of govern- 
ment keep the people in constant terror ; and having no opportu- 
nity of resisting or revenging by open force, they resort to crafti- 
ness, deceit, and lying, to escape the myrmidons of the law. To 
this may be traced the cause why the Chinese character is pro- 
verbially deceitful. 

A Chinese woman spends her time at home, and, if poor, works 
at the loom. Ladies prepare embroidery, and are fond of gaudy 
dress. Girls get little or no education, and boys are sent to school 
at an early age. Match-makers are in much repute, as ladies are 
not allowed to make a selection for themselves. The marriage- 
vow is said to be strictly observed on the female side, but the 
same cannot be said of the men. A small foot and a pale com- 
plexion are the tests of beauty. Celibacy is only known to a poor 
man who cannot buy a wife : all parents expect a dowry for their 
daughter, to repay them the expense of bringing her up. 

The suspicion of the Chinese character is manifest even in their 
marriages. The wedding-day being fixed on, the bridegroom sends 
a sedan (a particular kind is made for this purpose). The mother 
of the bride puts her in the sedan, securely locks the door, and 
sends the key to the mother-in-law. On the arrival at the 
bridegroom's house his mother unlocks the door, and delivers 
her to her intended husband, when both repair to the chapel of 
the idols, where are kept the names of their ancestors. In the 
outer temple they bow themselves four times upon their knees, 
and then enter the inner temple where their parents are sitting, 
to whom they make the same reverences. All parties then rer 
tire to the bridegroom's house, where a private room is set apart 
for the bride, into which no male relative can ever enter, not 
even the father of either parties. Should the father have occa- 
sion to chastise his son, which is not uncommon, the son con- 
trives to get into this private apartment, and is safe. 

Marriage appears to have been a formal ceremony in use from 
the earliest time. There are two kinds of marriage : the first is 



CLANS AND FEUDS. 39 

called a true marriage and lasts for the life of both parties^ un- 
less causes of divorce can be shown^ which are numerous and 
trivial. The second marriage is permitted by the laws in case 
they have no sons ; these concubines, or second wives, are regu- 
larly purchased from their parents, or some other person who 
has brought them up from childhood with that object. The price 
obtained for an accomplished female is very considerable. As 
soon as she brings forth a son she is probably parted with, and 
disposed of to another ; the first wife takes the son, and the real 
mother never sees it again. There is no prohibition against 
widows marrying ; but the higher classes never do. 

Clanships in China are very general, and many small islands 
and villages are solely inhabited by one or more clans, and probably 
only two surnames among them. By this means feuds are perpe- 
tuated from one generation to another, and occasionally break out 
into fatal quarrels. Two families, Chung and Chuy, — the former 
inhabits Dane's Island at Whampoa, and the latter the second 
Pagoda — have for years been on the most unfriendly terms with 
each other. The head of the Chung family at the near approach 
of death bit off his finger, and with the blood wrote the wrongs 
which had been perpetrated by the other dan, enjoining on them 
to exact full vengeance. From that day to this, if any member of 
either clan is found alone, he is sure to be robbed and beaten. 
On the north side of the river, their lands adjoin each other. The 
watercourses are generally a fruitful source of contention. If 
death ensues, it is rigidly kept secret from the authorities, as their 
mutual interests are concerned. But if the affair gets wind, and 
an investigation takes place, to meet the charge, a society is 
formed, the members of which voluntarily surrender themselves to 
government as the real perpetrators. The society then employs 
lawyers, and makes the case out one of homicide, which is pun- 
ished by fine or banishment. The society lay a tax on the mem- 
bers of the clan, to provide support for flie families of the con-s 
victed. The guaranteed amount is 300 dollars when capital pu^. 
mshment takes place. 

There is a strange mixture of self-government mingled with the 
despotism of the Pekin government. 

Many villages in China are without a single government-officer 
or policeman; and in that case the inhabitants combine together 
and select a head-man, pay him a yearly salary, and depose him 
and elect another should his conduct not meet the wishes of the 
majority of the inhabitants. Custom has given this head-man a 
degree of authority. Although unconnected with government, as 
the head of the village he is held responsible. His duties are 
chiefly arranging petty disputes, but his powers extend to flogging. 

The salary of this head man, in the village of Whampoa (7,000 
inhabitants) is 300 dollars per annum: and he has under him 
fourteen policemen. Appeals from the decision of the head-man 



40 DIVORCE CAUSES. 

are to the seunkeen^ the chief officer of a sae^ which is the namti of 
the subdivisions of a heen or district. Of these sze, the district of 
Pinanju has four; and the sze which includes Whampoa com- 
prises 164 villages^ each having a head-man. 

Secret societies (the triad) lutve lately caused a great increase of 
crime among this population. And for the better government of 
its affairs, twenty villages have subscribed, and built a court-house 
in a market town on the island of Honan. A president is elected 
with a salajry of 400 dollars per annum, who is chairman over the 
other head-men, when they deliberate in secret. When a man is 
selected for prosecution, he is forwarded to the oheheen, and 
seldom returns. 

Moral apothegms are much in faronr among the Chinese^ 
although there, as elaewhere, not carried into practice. These 
inculcatiens are painted on their temples, on tablets hung up in 
halls, on piotures, vases, Sec. A few examples will indicate their 
nature. ^^ A woman has merit no longer tiian while she applies 
herself to tl;Le virtues proper to her rank in society ; and these are, 
filial tevetenm^ zcspectfui fear, sweetness, modesly, gravity, sin- 
cerity, ceiaplalsejice, a spirit of economy, and a compassion for the 
wretched. ' What she ought to shun is, levity, pride^ auger, indis- 
cretion, and a hardness of heart towards the unhappy, idleness, 
&c.; but most particularly, net to be guilty of aoything which 
gives her husband a right to divorce her..'' 

Thefkolts authorizing divorce according to ancient laws, are seven 
in number :— »lst. To be otherwise than submissive *, 2nd, to be 
barren ; 8rd, to be guilty of adultery ; 4th, to be jealous : 5th, to 
have some grievous disease ; 6th, to talk too much ; 7th, to steal. 
Any of these gives a husband a right to put away his wife. The 
foiurth artiele is such as would cause a primary or legitimate wife, 
to hincter her husband taking a second wife or concubine. The 
fifth is meant by such a disease as leprosy, q)ilepsy, and the like. 
The four other articles^require no explanation. Theft is a sub- 
ject of divorce only when a wife robs her husband to enrich her 
relations. Among other aphorisms we find—-* 

'^ Learn to conquer your passions, to regulate your heart, and 
form it to virtue. Should you commit any crime, be very careful 
never to do it any more; the dike once broken, you can never 
stem the torrent. The desire of gaining riches never ceases but 
with life, which men are very often indifferent how they accumu- 
late, and wbieh eixtravagan/t children soon squeakier. 

ff Do. not be one of those gloomy spirits that everything dfis-* 
pleasesy and who dislike everything belonging to the whole human 
race ; but at the same time do not give your heart up to eveiythiBg 
tender/ nor trust to> sligfat protestations of fidelity. In the ways of 
civil life obsewe a just roaid, and you will escape a great deal of 
trouble and repentance. 

" Y<m have secret dislike to good men, and you do not like their 



MOBAL APHORISMS. 41 

conversation ; a certain proof of the depravity of yoar heart, and a 
disordered understanding : yon are ridily clothed, yon ride fine 
horses, nothing distnrbs yonr tranquillity ; your table abounds in 
delicate meats, yon swim in joy and pleasure; deolih will come 
and surprize you in the very xuidst of your delights, and p^haps 
asleep, and you will cause passengers to say, ^ Whose son was tins 
young man ?' 

^' If your Mend has different notions from you and won^t give 
the least concession^ if it only relates to indifferent things, let him 
indulge in them; if, on the contrary you always contradict him, 
what will you gala? You will breed ill-blood between you, and 
will lose by little and little his affection and confidence^'' 

The following ore classed as rules of conduct relative to ourselves : 

" Never employ your oathority in its Aill extent ; temper what- 
ever is severe in it by an air of sweetness and goodnature. Neither 
abuse the fear and rdspect which your rank and dignky inspire. 
It will do you honour to adapt the exercise of your power to the 
circumstances and ntuation of the piersdns with, whofm; .yon -live. 

" If some disaster or great nnsfortime be&U yon, and you see no 
means to estrioste yimrself; submit to the will ofljcttiren* To 
complain, to si^, to bemoan youaself, to strike: the eai^h with 
your foot, is not to diminish but increase the evil. ' . No one is 
ignorant of this truth : but how seldom do we see it regarded in 
men's practice? , 

^^ Think mticb andipedc little. A great parade of words only 
dazzles the eyes of fools ; and is far inferior to a judicious' silenoer 
There are especially eertain oocasions, when a wise man, how fine 
a speaker soever he be, and whatever inclination he may have to 
speak, will slUrBys put a seal upon his lips. 

" Forget the services you have done to others : it is their business 
to remember them. Do not point out the shining advaoatages 
which distinguish yon&cmi the common run of mankind: it is the 
part of others to find them out. The peach and the plumb speak 
not, they naturally leave traces of their worth. 

" If yon have a sharp, subtle, penetrating spirit; only apply it to 
the well govevmiKg of your domestic affairs: in yarn* commerce 
with the woriid study simplicity and plain-*dealing^ K you affect 
to appear more cunning than others; if there are discova^din your 
air and expreasions, constraint and artifice; you will always be 
distrusted, and will never acquire sincere Mend?. 

'^ Do you love sweet things ? Taste first those that are lour. Do 
yoiu seek x^x>8e and pleasure ? First experienee futigxie and toil. 
He that would take a high leap, must first of all stoop and betid 
his body* 

'^ It is not enough to study the world in ovder to adajft yourself 
wdl to it ; study yourself, and examine eray evemng what you 
have done during the day. If any action ha^h escaped you which 
you have reason to be s<»ry for, tcdce proper nveans to coitect yom** 



42 SELF DISCIPLINE AND REGULATION. 

self, and commit it no more. If^ on the contrary, yon have no- 
thing to reproach yourself with, taste the sweet pleasure which 
arises from the testimony of a good conscience. 

" If you hear the praises, which are bestowed on you, with a 
modest simplicity, you add a new lustre to your merit. If, on the 
contrary, you are puffed up with this slight mark of esteem, and 
are seduced to assume an important and supercilious air, the 
favourable opinion that was entertained of you is instantly con- 
verted to prejudice, and people retract in secret the applauses of 
which they think you no longer worthy. 

" Buin follows gain very near : and misery is at the tail of good 
fortune. He alone leads a tranquil life, who is content with a 
decent mediocrity. 

" How difficult it is to live in the world and to preserve therein 
irreproachable manners ! It is nevertheless possible ; but for this 
end one hath need of a continual attention and watchfulness over 
one^s self. 

'^ The soul ought to rule the body. How unhappy is he who 
saffers himself to be governed by his passions and irregular desires ! 
You see that great man : he is an hero, that hath not his equal 
among all our warriors : his name makes the earth tremble ; he 
hath crossed the four seas, he hath subdued all before him ; him- 
self is the only one he hath not been able to conquer ; for he is 
still a slave to his body. 

*' You employ yourself in study, with outendeavouring to compre- 
hend what you study : the time you spend therein, is to you so 
much time lost. When you read the books which the sages have 
left us, read them with reflection : every letter, every expression, 
ought to appear precious to you : the doctrine ought to be deeply 
engraven on your heart : that which goes no farther than the eyes 
and ears, is hke a repast which one only makes in a dream. 

*' A kindness or favour opportunely done, may procure sometimes 
to him who did it a considerable fortune. A trifle often occasions 
great joy. Excessive love frequently turns to bitter hatred. 

'' Neglect not an affair because it appears of small importance : a 
shght chink may cause shipwreck to the greatest vessel. An 
insect never so small may by its bite occasion your death. 

'' If you are charged with an important and difficult employ, away 
with sound and colour; but on the other hand, imitate not those 
senseless young men, who take their pleasure, and at the same 
time make complaint ; who are overpowered with the slightest 
business, and who trouble their neighbours incessantly about it. 

" If you have but a small share of genius and virtue, and have 
nothing to recommend you but a self-sufficient and decisive air, 

Jour fall is certain : of ten, who resemble y6u, nine fall. If you 
ave never seen the heavens, but from the bottom of a pit ; if you 
can only show the road by the direction of a wall, the best advice 
is never singly to undertake any great affair. 



DtTTIES OF CHILDREN AND PARENTS. 48 

"Propose great modek for your imitation. Tao, Shun, Yu, Fe»- 
vanffy CheW'Cong, Cong-tse, differed not in shape from common 
men^ but in the qualities of the mind and hearty which have 
rendered them famous to ten thousand generations. Form your- 
self after the pattern of their integrity, their greatness of soul, 
their sweetness, their facility of pardoning, and their other virtues, 
and you will become a real sage : but if you neglect to improve 
the talents you have received from nature ; if you are blunt, impe- 
rious, and harsh to others, you will only be a despicable creature. 

" Do you see this frantic person — this madman ? he tears his 
clothes, he runs about everywhere, he would get upon the top of 
the house naked, he bites, he tears those who endeavour to stop 
him. It is the picture of a hair-brained man, who will do every- 
thing head foremost, and in the manner he likes best ; that is to 
say, in the most unreasonable manner in the world. If you make 
the least remonstrance, he chafes himself, he is in a heat, he flies 
out into a rage, and only repays the affection you show him, with 
ingratitude and hatred. 

" One of the best actions we can do in this life is to succour the 
afflicted and to reUeve the indigent. If Heaven did not send cala- 
mities into the world, we should have no opportunity to exercise 
mercy. 

'' Three things are absolutely necessary to him who addicts him- 
self to study. In the first place, to conquer his passions, and to 
render himself their master. Secondly, to have a sweet, tractable, 
complying temper. Thirdly, to hold all bad doctrines in abhor- 
rence, and never to engage in any false sect. 

" Who hath loved you more than your father and mother? What 
inquietudes hath your infancy caused them? What pains have 
they taken to bring you up ? How mdny kinds of labour and toil 
have they endured to place you in your present condition ? And 
can you carry your ingratitude and harshness so far, as to displease 
and afflict them ? 

" Yet this will be the consequence, ye fathers and mothers, if you 
do not pay attention to the faults of your children, and if you 
neglect to correct them in their tender age. Above all, never per- 
mit them, under a pretence of showing their wit, to answer you 
pertly, or to contradict those whom they ought to reverence : if 
this is permitted, you must never expect to see them obedient and 
respectfol when more advanced in years. 

^' What shall we say of that person, who labours under great igno- 
rance ; who knows but imperfectly the nature of things, and the 
lame principles of moraUty, and who nevertheless appears with his 
head lifted up, opening great eyes, bridling his chin, thrusting out 
his belly, marching haughtily and as if he counted his steps? Is 
there an object more worthy of compassion? Were he a hundred 
years upon the earth,, could one say of such a one he had lived a 
day? 



44 BASXNSS8 OF THB HEART. 

*^ If you have reason on your side make it appear with a soft and 
gentle air; to what end those emotions of anger? This is not the 
way to persuade a reasonable mind. Bat if you have not reason 
on your side^ and yet uronld carry it by downright force^ yon are 
no^ietter than the public robbers. 

^^ Your neighbour hath acquired a large fortune ; gold and silver 
melt in his house; everything prospers with himi and you are 
ready to burst with spite. Anoth^ groans under a weight of 
affliction which overwhelms Him^ and you feel at the bottom of 
your soul a secret joy at it. Sad effects of the malignity and base- 
ness of your heajrt ! 

" You are only -employed in procunng £or yoisrself all sorts of 
pleasm^, and in leading a sensual and voluptuous life ; you enjoy 
calmly all the favoura of fortune^ think yourself secure from 
faunger> thirst and poverty ; senseless, as you are, are you igno- 
rant that heaven endures not the wicked^ and leaves not any evil 
unpumshed? 

''Would you faeoome skilful in the administration of public affairs? 
Apply yotilrself to the reading of our history. But if you have an 
antipsjtby to booksy if you cannot endure them in your house, your 
children will be woifiC than if they were bom blind. 

" In a famine the sourest and bitterest things are pleasant to your 
taste; ' Ate you in abundance, the best meats seem to you tasteless 
and insipid. The heart of heaven cannot content your heart. 
Did you ever see any one die of hunger, who knew how to be con- 
tent with what littfe he had ? 

" There are three things you should always have before your eyes : 
the law of heaven, the law of the empire, and the honour of your 
neighbour. If you neglect these three sarticles, go wherever you 
will, you must not hope to five at ease. 

'' Study, science, and virtue, make whole families shine : applica- 
tion and economy serve to govern them : tomplaisance and pacific 
disposition, to keep them united : tranquillity and conformity to 
reason, to preserve them. A man who hath neither equity, appli- 
cation, nor politeness, is a savage beast, whose head is covered with 
a bonnets 

''However dexterous a man may be, whatever service he may have 
performed, if he is vain enough to make it the subject of his con- 
versatiouj if there escape a single word in his own praise, it is all 
over with him> he loses all the merit of it« If, on the contrary, he 
chance to tell into any fault, and do but ackBOwledge it and 
humble himself, his fault is repaired. 

" If the father of a family bathe every day, his children will be 
skilful swimmei'B. If the father steal melons or fruits, his sons will 
be assassins and incendiaries. One is apt to spare a child, and 
laugh at'Uafattlts, instead of covreetiiig them ; it is pretended he 
is still youngs and while this is incessanilly said and repeated, the 
child grows up; he is now a great boy and becomes your punish-* 



TREATMENT OP SRUTES. 45 

ment. People torment and afflict themselves when they have no 
children, and yet they frequently suffer much more when they have 
them. 

" How hard is it to escape a bad character ? It is still more diffi* 
cult to deserve general esteem and approbation. 

" Be not too eager and lively, have no precipitation in your words 
and in your motions ; he who is least pressing often amves first at 
the goal ; too much vivacity only serves to perplex affairs. When one 
swallows whole morsels, one is liable to cast them up : when one 
runs too fast, one is liable to fieill headlong to the ground. 

'^ What end do you think can be answered by that blunt and 
haughty air, which distinguishes you ? Be good and semeve at the 
same time; eternal peace shall reign in your ikmily. Put a seal 
upon your mouth, and guard your heart as you would guard the 
walls of a city. Above all, do not become a relaterof falisle reports, 
nor of all you hear said at random. 

" Suffer not yourself to be hurried away by excess of joy for any 
unforeseen good luck; Be always equal and cod at cither :fhrfcune." 

The rules of coi^duct relative to the brute creatio®, translated 
frozh the Kufiff'^KwO'Kih, evince an excess of amiabili^ ; amd yet 
there is scarcely any nation. more cruel or indifferent- 16 human or 
animal suffering. ;; , 

The rewards and penalties, are thus estimated by comparative 
numerals :^-^ 

1. To save from death an animal that is unable to i«nder any 
service by way of recompense, (e. g. swine, sheep, geses^ &c.) 1 

2. To save the lives of an hundred insects. . i 1 

3. To hoLtj an animal that has died of itself . . 1 
4fc To relieve a brute that is greatly wearied with work 1 

5. To purchase and set at liberty, animals intended to be 
slaughtered. (For each himdred stsesx bo employed.) . 1 

6. Not to eac the flesh of an animal killed on purpose for our 
own use. (Perhaps so killed without thought^~*or by the kindness 
of a £riend.) . . . . • . % 

7. To abstain for a whole year from the flesh of oxen and dogs 5 

8. To save the life of a brute, which, by its services^ oaa re- 
compense us. (e. %, the dog, the ox, the ass, the horse> fiso*) 20 

9. To abstain from killing every kind of animal for one whole 
year. . . . . . . ' • 20 

10. To take the lead in exhorting men from the i^ilan^ter of 
animab, and in advising them to set free those which are appmnted 
for slaughter. ,.•..« ;' 100 

A LIST OF EftBORS ON THE SAITE SUBJECT. 

1. To confine birds in a cage. . . » ^ 1 

2. To kill ten insects. . . . . . I 

3. To be unsparing of the strength of wearied animals* 1 

4. To hill an animal that is witiiout the pow^ of remunerating 
kind treatment, (e. g. poultry, sheep, &c.) . , 5 



46 SLAVERY AND ITS LAWS. 

5. To disturb insects in their holes, and to irighten away birds 
perching on the boughs. • • . • 3 

6. To despise those persons who compassionately set at liberty, 
brutes that were intended for the shambles . . 3 

7. To stop up the dens of wild beasts, and destroy the nests of 
birds. ....... 20 

8. Without great reason to kill and dress animals for food 20 

9. Secretly to butcher oxen and dogs. . . 100 

10. To be the foremost to encourage the slaughter of animals, 
or to hinder persons from setting them at liberty. . 100 

Notwithstanding this apparent sensibility, one of the ordinary 
punishments for criminals is to place them in the town square, fixed 
in a wooden collar, with a guard to prevent any food being given 
them, and nothing but a little water allowed daily, in order to 
render their sufferings more severe. The torture is thus prolonged 
for ten or more days, until death releases the victims of barbar- 
ism. A people who would suffer this mode of punishment must 
be as cruel as they are selfish and sensual. 

There can be no doubt that slavery exists in China. Several of 
the Europeans engaged in the opium trade on the coast, buy Chi- 
nese girls, at a price from 100 dollars and upwards according to 
their beauty. 

Mr. Biot has minutely investigated the laws relative to the hired 
servant and the slave. The law protects the two last classes against 
their masters. The punishment varies according to the condition 
of the parties, for the purpose of keeping up the distinction. Mar- 
riage between slaves and free persons is strictly forbidden, and 
punished by banishment, and the marriage is declared null and 
void. A slave guilty of criminal intercourse with a wife or daughter 
of a freeman, shall be punished more severely than a freeman would 
have been under similar circumstances. The punishment of a free- 
man under similar circumstances, is much lighter, as it is con- 
sidered he has disgraced his character. The penal code lays down 
responsibihty on all parties of the social circle, for the concealment 
of the untimely death of either master or slave. 

The laws are severe against slaves, and decree that any slave who 
purposely strikes his master shall be beheaded. All slaves design- 
edly killing, or striking their master, with a design to kill, shall 
suffer death by a slow and painful execution. All slaves who ac- 
cidentally kill their masters, shall be strangled after having been 
imprisoned the usual time. Every slave who shall accidentally 
wound his master, shall suffer one hundred blows, and perpetual 
banishment to the distance of three thousand le. 

Every hired servant who strikes his master, or the maternal 
grandfather or grandmother of his master, shall be punished with 
one hundred blows and three years banishment ; if he wounds the 
said persons, he shall be punished with one hundred blows, and per- 
petual banishment to the distance of 3,000 le. 



SLAVES AND EUNUCHS. 47 

. Section 314 of the penal code decrees, that in case of theft or 
adultery committed by a sla^e, if the master or one of his near 
relatives secretly beats the slave to death, instead of informing the 
magistrate, this master or his relation shall be sentenced to receive 
one hundred blows. If the master of a slave, or the relation of a 
master in the first degree, intentionally kills this slave, or beats him 
to death ; the slave not being guilty of any crime, the delinquent 
shall be punished with 60 blows and one year's banishment. The 
family of the slave killed have a right to be affiranchised. A master 
can beat his hired servant without being punished ; but if he kills 
him he is punished by strangulation. 

Section 322 relates to a master who strikes his late slave, and re- 
ciprocally. Both shall be pimished as equals, the tie between them 
having been broken by the sale of the slave ; but if the master 
has freed his slave, his right is not transferred to any other, and 
thus the sentence is pronounced as if the slave had not been set 
free. 

Section 328 provides against abusive language from a slave or 
hired servant to his master or his relations. K the words are ad-, 
dressed to his master, the slave is punished with strangtdation. If 
they are addressed to the relations of his master in the first degree^ 
the slave receives 50 blows and two years banishment. In all cases 
the language must have been heard by the person so insulted, and 
such person must always complain of it publicly. 

There can be no doubt, from a perusal of these laws, that slavery 
is general is various parts of China, but it appears specially so in 
the southern provinces. The number of slaves that are annually 
sent to the island of Formosa from Fookeen is very great. The 
Chinese when spoken to, gravely answer, " What can poor people 
do that have no rice V It is possible that the Chinese authorities 
are disposed to subdue the whole island to themselves : lately they 
have formed new settlements on the N.£. and E. side of Formosa. 
An eye-witness who had seen 150 slaves shipped by natives of 
China, says, the junk was only about ninety tons burthen, divided 
into compartments. Previous to the celebration of the new year, 
children are regularly sold, and the money is squandered. The 
prices average from twenty to fifty dollars each : elderly women 
bring about thirty dollars ; female children, who are goodlooking, 
bring very high prices, from 500 to 5,000 dollars. The price is 
said to go towards foundling hospitals, in which many of them 
have been brought up. 

The Emperors of the Han, Tang, and Sung dynasties bestowed 
most of the civil offices of state on the eunuchs : there is no doubt 
that political principles governed their choice; in this they were 
disappmnted, as the eunuchs have often excited the greatest dis- 
suasion in the Chinese empire. Since the Mantchou dynasty, the 
number of these dependents has been reduced : according to law, 
there can be no eunuchs in a private house ; this right is only con- 



48 INFANTICIDE — PBOCLAMATION. 

ferrad on the princes of the imperial family ; tbe number at pre- 
sent in Cliina is about six thousand* By law castration is per- 
formed on the children of rebels^ under sixteen years of age. AU 
the male relations of criminals guilty of high treason suffer death, 
if over .sixteen years of ag^j and all under that age are made 
eunuchs of, to be employed in the palace. 

The existence of infanticide in China has been often asserted; 
and either doubted or totally disbelievedj especially by those who 
extol Chinese civilization. In proof of its cxiatenoe, the annexed 
proclamation from the Governor of Canton is given : 

"Febwwy 19, 1888. 
" Lieutenant-Governor Ke, to the People of Canton. 

'MiV^ljy^r^a^ ^tx^afv^aapd e^vijk display tjbeir i^Mevblent power in 
givingiyQX^i^tcw?^^' fSA fathers and moth^t exUibH their tender 
affecpJHi;i^il!(^i^g.t}^^ o^sprin it ie^- therefarey incumbent on 
you^in]|]^bitants^of the land, to nurse imd rear /all your in&nts, 
whet^fripialc^ or female. On inquiry, I find /thpt] the- drowning of 
fema^^r^ ,^te: common, and practised by botb^'m/i and poor. 
Had th^e been no' mothers, whence would you have obtained your 
ownTbp4i^»^?, -.ilfyou had no wives, where will be your posterity? 
Refte^i^iff^i^i^^ what you are doing. The destruction of female 
infant^ ij^^o^hi^g.le^s' than the mvcrder of huttbaa beings. That 
tho^vT;if)^ji^ill49^ijBlll themselves be killed, is the soare retribution oi 
amoi^^mifi r Veaven« And you, elders and gentisy, imght by ex- 
hprtatien^ apad Jiindness to prevent the destrnataoni of faiiman life. 
Herealbec no elem^a<^ will be shown to suob oAindeflrs: so give 
heed .to> these instructions.^' 

The medicaL missionaries, since the opening of the northern 
porter have been ceaseless in their endeavours to check this emel 
system, and have endeavoured to trace the probable extent to whidt 
it is^^wAed. 

The excellent missionary, Mr. Abeel, who wns for several years 
at KiOplungsoo and Amoy, says, that from a eomparison with many 
other paxts of the country, there is reason to believe that a greater 
ntunhet of children are destroyed at birth in this district, than in 
any;i>t]fteir. dq^rtment. By an inquiry of persons from, forty dif- 
fenenlt'iotwns and villages (of which the names are here omitted), 
tha jMonher -destroyed varies exceedingly in different places; the 
extSffewAs ^eoitending from seven to eight ten&s (Chinese mode), i.e. 
8«veAfy!0C jeighty per cent, to one-tenth, or teoa pe^ cent. ; and the 
meto %t ^Q vrhole number, the average proportioii destroyed in all* 
thope^^eig^s/ anMHUKtod to nearly &ur-tenth8, or exsictly tibirty-nine 

' • Inr>'Mr^t^en of these Sottv towns and viUages, tiie inforniants 
d^aOid')tha(i.'mcbre'than one-half, of the dholdren bom are deprived- 
ofexistanit& <Vaki»g*eighfc other pktees, as a sldndaod, it lies be*- 
tvveegtrottf -^finrtbatd threet-tenths, or near thiity per eenib. 
! Acconrtm^ toithe* opinion, el /the inhaibitiiits' Of eighteen towns* 



FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. 49 

«nd Tillages m the department of Changchaw, th6 nuniber kiUed is 
more than one-fourth, and less than thtee-tenths.' Ptom inquiries 
made of the inhabitants of Fuchou-foo, the existence of the crime 
is admitted, but its preralence is not so extensive. An examina- 
tion which was held at Amoy^ in 1843; to confer literary honours, 
brought many hundred candidates &om rariotus districts, Who were 
asked as to the extent of the crime ; they all deplored it, and ex^ 
pressed themselves freely on the subject* But, as suicide is no 
crime in China, and self-destruction is even regarded as a favour 
by the government to an all^d cribiinal, so the taking of the Hfe 
of an in&nt, eqseeially that of a female, is not generally regarded 
as murder* . . • 

To check this brutal custom, efforts ^e madid in k^ cities, by 
the erection off foiundling'hospilais by benevcS^t indivMttsJ^, but 
they are too limited in number and resouiitses^ Thene dbes not 
appear to be any disgrace connected with infanticide, except an 
exposure of th^ir poverty; what excuse the rich tnake it 4s diffi- 
cult to know; but= avarice mctst be the mainst^dng in fheir cal- 
culations. 

Foundling hospitals nre met with in the large eitier of CJMna. 
One in Ningpo aecommcidates from sixty to sev^ty^ children of 
both sexes : ou4iside the building is placed a wooden crcidte, and 
over it an inscription : Kiatt^ehinff^pau-t^h^h, '' Nurture 4o mmurity, 
and protect the iabe9/^ Each nurse has the charge of tw<y children. 
Male children remain until they are fourte^i years of ag&; girls 
until they are »ckteein» This institution is upwards of 100 years 
established. The six districts connected with Ningpo are taxed in 
kind for its support j it has a yearly income from land and money 
funded. It is presided over by a superintendent and a government 
inspector. 

Extreme poverty is often the cause of infanticide; but as a 
nation or people, the Chinese have more food than the Hindoos. 
The labouring olaiE^s have two meals in the day, at ten o'cloek, a.m., 
and five, p.m. The table furniture is uniform among the several 
ranks of sodety : a large bowl for riee, several small ^hes for fish, 
and a small bowl for each person, with a pair of chop-sticks, com- 
plete the requirements of the poor. In eating, each person holds 
the small bowl up to his chin, and shovels the rice, or whatever it 
is, into his month. What moi^ surprises a foreigner is the nmnber 
of dishes at a rich banquet. But one kind is bvonght to taiUe at 
once, and probably there will be thirty courses* Fruit is often 
served first; fiidi, or soup, last; there does not aj^p^ar to be any 
fixed rule. The Chinese custom, when giving a large party, is to 
provide each guest with a separaite table. Gratmes of chance are 
often introdneed between the courses. An ordinary feast will 
occupy five or six hours at least. In feasting out, the CfaiMse axe 
proverbial Soir eating voraciously. If an invited guesi is pievmited 
firom attending, h^ diare is carefully sent to his house. The 



50 ANIMAL AND VEOE'TABLE FOOD. 

female portion of a family is always excluded; among the higher 
Tslnks^ males and females sit at separate tables. 

The domesticated animals used by the Chinese as food^ comprise 
•most of those known in Europe^ but inferior in size. Cattle for 
agricultural purposes are plentiful ; the pasture ground is usually 
on the hills among the graves. The broad-tailed sheep is known 
«11 over China^ the mutton is tender and well-flavoured ; goats are 
abundant^ but of all quadrupeds the swine is most common and 
esteemed for the iat ; horse-flesh is found in the markets of the 
norths and brings a good price : dogs, cats^ rats^ mice^ snakes^ 
toads, and other reptiles, are eaten by those who can afford to buy 
little; indeed' every thing that is found, even to the elephant, is 
eaten by the poor. 

The beverages of "ttie Chinese i»e few in variety, and every thing 
is drunk warm, but t^a is used by every one even at dinner, and 
without sugar <)r milk. On all complimentary visits tea is pre- 
sented instead ^of wiile. 

The castdr' oU^ pltoi and camellia oleifera,- or oil-bearing tea- 
plant, are in great demand. The Chinese use the castor oil in 
cooking, as its purgative qualities are not great when fresh. The 
oil is obtldneid h6m the seeds by parboiling them and then press- 
ing them in' a cylinder. The young shoots of the bamboo, as a 
vegetable, are in more extensive use than most other vegetables. 
Tobacco is idsnost universally smbked by men and women; and not 
unfrequently mixed with opium. The rivers, lakes, and canals, 
teem with 4Aii and the milUom of people who live on the water and 
near the- shore, wholly live on fish, the right of fishing being 
open to all. They have a species of bird like a cormorant which 
is trained to dive for fish ; all the other modes, such as hooks, 
nets, and snares, are in use. All the water-products known are to 
be found in China; and fish is more or less an ingredient in every 
dish among rich and poor. 

The grains which are cultivated include all those used for food, 
rice, wheat, rye, &c. Rice is the chief article of diet, and is raised 
in almost tevery part of the empire. He southern parts are best 
adapted $ but it has been found growing in the extreme northern 
part of ■ 'China. Wheat and millet appear to be the most general 
crop in 'the region north of the - Yangtrekang.* Millet is the 
great staple oil the banks of the Pei-ho; there are several species 
of plants under the name of millet, the seeds of which diffbr 
much in size' and taste ; the Barbadoes Ynillet'is most common: 
panicum, which is planted much later, is Altoealled millet. Rice 
and xaiJlet^afB generally boiled together; Wteaten flour is pre- 
ferred fo^pastky, cakes, &c. Bread is prej^ftred frdm Vheaten floui>, 
but withoilt 'letaven : bread is rarely se&ii i& shops or houses, so 
that it is not noommon article of food, among the Chinese, Maize 
grows to great perfection in the nothern regions, and is most gene- 



COOKING AND EATING HOUSES. 51 

rally eaten green. Oats and barley are known, but not esteemed 
for food. Garden vegetables of some sort, always form a part of 
the Chinese meals. Leguminous and cruciferous plants are culti- 
vated in every portion of China that has been visited by Europeans. 
The kidney-bean and horse-bean are well known; the whole plant 
is frequently boiled, From the dolichos soja, or soy-bean, is 
manufactured the condiment called soy. The white bean, when 
ground with water, appears like the curd of milk, and in that state 
is hawked about the streets. Peas are in season in February. 

Among cruciferous plants, cabbage and turnips are the most ex- 
tensively cultivated. .. One description of white cabbage grows 
upwards of three feet high, and will weigh twelve or eighteen 
pounds. Onions and garlics are pickled, boiled, and fried ; carrots, 
asparagus, melons, and cucumbe;rs are esteemed. Edible tubers are 
cultivated in lakes, rivers, and wherever they will grow. ' The Irish 
potatoe is chiefly confined to the vicinity of Maoao. The nelum- 
bium roots are frequently seen five feet long, and nearly three inches 
thick; in taste they resemble a turnip. They ane. eaten raw and 
cooked, generally boiled. The cooking and mode of eating among 
the Clunese are peculiar : cooking is uniform from. >the gov^vnor to 
the cooley, as £Br as regards the preparation of the 'staples :> as to 
the mode of eating with two smooth sticks, it is thoroughly na- 
tional, and unlike any other people in the world. Oil is universally 
used in cooking, al^ garlic or onions ; the most oommon.mode is 
stewing and fryuig. There is no limit to the number <of ingre- 
dients in a single dish, which will <^ten amount to ten or twelve 
different substances. The entire body of an animal is sometimes 
baked whole; the outer side is first made clean, and the body 
pierced with holes into which salt is rubbed ; this is the common 
mode of dressing hogs and dogs. Boasting is hardly known in 
Chinese cookery. Puddings, custards, pies, or such like, so much 
esteemed in Europe, are nearly or altogether unknown in China. 

All attempts to introduce European wines among the Chinese 
have hitherto failed. They make a wine from rice, by putting yeast 
in it, but it soon turns sour, and is then converted into vinegar. 
An ardent spirit (samshoo) is distilled from millet and rice, and 
has a smoky flayour somewhat like Scotch whisky. Rumis distilled 
from molasses, and is an abominable drink. Cherry brandy (im- 
ported) is a favourite drink with the rich. If inelmety' be pirac- 
tised among the Chinese, it is done in private, for to sise a dirunkard 
in the streets is very unusual. Complimentary healths ai!erdl?ank 
at d^lner, aod the cup is generally drained. <n . 

Eating-houses, and taverns are numerous in large towtsus and 
cities ; board a^ k)dgi];ig arereascmable* The numbei* pfrlatverns 
in Canton is ve:ry great; but the greater niiuaiber- <rf 'eatia)kg*>places 
are in the principal thoroughfare in the streets, wheise^the provisions 
are cooked and vended. The. average price, for a meal iis from two 

£ 2 



maee^to dureo caaodcreeiii; Svary thing ii hawked about the 
streets ; the markets are merely open spaces near the temples. 
Fnel'U experauTe^ and only used for eookii^ andmann&ctares j in 
cold weather tiie eheerfol fire is dispensed with, and an additional 
number of garments, sometimes five or six in nombmr, are worn 
over each o^er; in warm weather almost every garment is dis- 
pensed with : body linen is by no means in general use. 

Spiiita are used extensively, but drunkenness is verv rare/ The 
spirit termed '^ samshoo^' is drank hot at the prineipal meal. 

The following extracts frcmi a native work called '^ Tung-shen- 
Inh,^ or f' Sssays to Good,'' show how sobriety is •inculcated : — 

'' Spirits are maddening medicine. They destitoy virtue, and 
timnrman'a nature into oonfbsien. Unless men |)osiBtess sage-like 
virtue,! ikiqr earn never o6ntrol themadhws-when under the influence 
of spiiaibsi The-etiieer who indulges freely in their tise, blindly and 
sluggiBl^y iconducts the duties of his oflSoei The learned and un- 
learned when steeped in spirits, torn all thingii u^ide down. The 
lioentiinu omI lewd it leads on, acting as their go-between. They 
exdteisugeE^ and induce quarreUing— they darken^and mislead the 
iatelKgeiS;^ and make the careful and discreet' carcftess and disor- 
ders^ iThore are miseries without and diseases^ within. Spirits 
nkarate the stomach, destroy the intestines, and eventually cause 
deafchiV 

Thtt'diasimilarity in the style of living, between the exti^omes 
of wealth and {voverty, is remarkable: the riek- Chinelie collect 
on their tables everjrtinng that is curious and expensive; and 
the cost of a dish exdiances it in their estimation. On the oth^ 
hand, it would be difficult to know what it is the poor of China 
do not eat : and it is not in times of famine only, but at dl 
times^ they consume food that no oth^ people would eat from 
taste or fancy, but from sheer necessity. The {«inciples of the 
Chinese law are to admit of no distinctions among the subjects, 
except those of learning and office ; and the miost rigid laws have 
been imposed to check vanity and splendour wMsh wealth is 
apt to assume ; but with regard to diet, the difference between 
xioh «nd poor is more marked than in any other country. 

Public granaries are established in eveiy province. Those of 
the government are presided over by an officer who has the 
chfttgei of them, and complaints are made of the mxsappropria- 
tion^lef'-l^e provision only intended for the poor in times of fa- 
minci. i There are other granaries, which belong to individuak 
whsk haM raised n fund for tiiat object When once filled> tbe 
surplus :jincomoi go to the expenses of the district. In yean of 
nbundfltnce'th^ kMn or sell the rice, and at the harvest cause it 
to be retnvndd with interest. The Emperor in times of fomine 
siends a^mbscriplion. There is a description of ahnshouses or hos- 
pitals, ' chiefly 'Suii|M>rted by government, but they only admit the 
aged* and infiiin* The abuses of these desirable institutions are 



very great; it i» Baid not one-kaiT the ineoaies aro eorpemded on 
the poor. t . ' 

Under the head of iiiaiiii£EK;tiires, the rates of wage» and • prices 
of promionB ase given. Many of the most skilftil mendo tiot 
earn a guinea a month ; the moet mdufltnoHs manofactnreiJs get 
only tluree dollars monthly^ on an ayerage^ and with tkb thqr 
are ccmtent. 

BacOj salty and a few vegetables^ with some &h^ are their daily 
food. They W(»rk from cbiylight to sunset, and have no hoUday 
except at the new year. There are very few large mannfitctnring 
establishments:; the aartieaas work on their ciwn aecoimt^ and seU 
their work when it is finished* 

Notwitlufitan^iiig the rudeness of their looms; yet lin 'several 
articles of silk and. eotton mannfaietureSj the Chineae/eomlieterwith 
European skSl and oapital, as regards cheapness 'o£* prodaotion z 
and certainly theif products a^e superior indurabibtyjin soft^ 
ness, and frequepijfcV iti brightness of colour. i:>..v :,n 

The wages of mechanics and skilful workomral aute ^arayilew, 
and seldom. exceed one^fourth of a dollar per day ; thoQBfliglBLged 
by the montib: still less. The number of itineilant indb^^nen, 
that hawk their labonr and tools through every paort/df Cttmia^ 
is incalcutoble i they very much resemble (^ gypsies^' *ih ockmniOiL 
labourer's wages average about thirty cash (fourpence) ; df dinary 
servants about tlunse soatd a half dollars per mentibl* j ^Wheatvery 
poor and sigt /able to: work> many turn Buddhist 'prsealslit;') ' 

The laws and custom require all cities and towns lK:>:be^ibuilt on 
a plan laid down by government. The first is, they must be 
square, as &r as the ground will admit ; this is in order that the 
gates on each side may face the cardinal points. They are, when 
built, divided into four nearly equal divisions, and then subdivided 
into smaller divisions, each not to have more than ten hcmses ; over 
each subdivision an ^^fieer presides, whose duty is to take notice 
ci the most trifling circumstance that occurs, such as contention^ 
or the visit of strangers : all is reported to the Mandarins* This 
inqoisitorud syHkeon commences in the capital of each province, and 
descends, step by step, down to the father of every family^' who k 
held answerable for the iH-conduct of either his shives, servatxta, or 
dnldren. : -rj 

Dwelling-houses must be built according to a law nrhicharegft- 
lates ^e height only. If built in any respect to ccqi^^wlkth'thb 
temploSj the pwner exposes himself to punishment, andilhe house 
is liable to be puUed down* In some oi the provincea whaa^ wood 
is ^bu^dant, the houses are chiefly composed, of dsroodenrj^pets, 
covered with a coarse kind of mat-work, plastered <ili)d-iidiiten€id« 
In C^ton the houses are chiefly built of bridk, and aser cmly^aBe 
story high; in large cities they are geiierally tisfo .slories ^high. 
The winiowa are citaefly carved ]Attioed-work9.andjeovet)edJ«fithisHk-» 
puper, QTi BflAt^ oystoiwshells. . When ^/iewed itom t)ha< missiof^ the 



64 DWELLINGS AND TEMPLES. — FAIB8. 

Chinese dwellings have a neat appearance ; but they will not beai^ 
examination as compared to the internal arrangement of similar 
houses in Europe. 

: The temples in China have generally a handsome fronts with a 
stage for theatrical performances. The comers of the roof are 
more pointed than those of private houses^ and no limit is placed to 
their height. The interior of these temples are very extensive^ as 
they serve for a dwelling-place for the priests. Figures in wood 
and stone^ are very numerous throughout the principal edifice. 
Before these are placed dishes and large vases^ bearing lights and 
incense^ which are burnt in honour of the gods. An iron bell and a 
large drum are requisite to complete the furnishing of a Chinese 
temple. On festival days^ after the good things are first offered to 
the idols, they are then partaken of by the worshippers ; and sen- 
suality of the grossest nature often closes the *^ religious *' duties 
of the day. 

Fairs and markets are held at stated times. In small towns 
there are nine ftiirs every month ; in second-rate towns, fifteen ; 
and in large cities 4;here is a fair or market every day — ^besides 
fairs which are held specially for the sale of cattle. At the Chinese 
fairs, every thitig in use amongst them is sold. Any considerable 
quantity of goods is usually bought on credit, and security given 
for the payment at a stated time. There is a class of men, who 
are called mediators, whose duty is chiefly to reconcile two parties 
who cannot agree as to the real value of a commodity. These 
^'go-betweens^' are very numerous, and generally make both 
ps^ies pay them for their services. 

Inns of a miserable description are to be found in all great 
thoroughfares. The beds are very uncomfortable; the Chinese 
generafiy carry a blanket with them when they travel any distance 
from home. Inns on the road-side seldom or ever have sleeping 
accommodation for travellers, so that nothing is to be had in 
them but boiled rice or vegetables, except tea, which is the usual 
beverage. 

The military roads are made at the government expense ; and 
are rarely laid out in a straight line for any considerable distance, 
their ditection depending entirely upon the owner or occupier of 
the land through which they are made. The provinces that have 
no rivets or canals, are intersected with roads, the average breadth 
of five or six feet. It is said, that in the provinces of Honan, 
Shense, and Chih-li, there are waggons and public conveyances* 
In districts that prodttce salt and coal, and that have ilo rivers, the 
uMTotv roadd are covered for miles with porters, who divide their 
burdens into two equal parts, which they attach to each end of a 
bamboo pole. Asses and mules are generally made use of in 
mountain districts. 

The dikes in the low sea-board districts of China, require con- 
stant repair and attention; as also the banks of the great rivers.. 



POOE-LAWS. BEGOABS. — ^BOBBEES. 55 

AppUcations are very numerous to govemmeut, wHch are answered 
by calling on those who have received imperial favours for subscrip- 
tions : those who seek promotion in office, generally give liberally : 
when this amount fails to finish the works, a grant of money is 
given, to be restored by means of a sinking fund, within a number 
of years. But a free grant for this most necessary purpose is a 
rare occurrence. Great damage is done from time to time to large 
districts of country by the overflowing of the rivers ; which one of 
our ordinary engineers, if in the service of the Chinese govern- 
ment, would effectually prevent. 

Many of the enactments of China read well on paper, but are 
never acted upon, and are practically inoperative : thus, for instance, 
by the laws of China it is enacted, that all widowers and widows, 
the fatherless and childless, the helpless and infirm, shall receive 
sufficient maintenance and protection from the magistrates of their 
native city or district, whenever they have neither relations nor 
connexions upon whom they can depend for their subsistence; any 
magistrate refusing such protection shall be punished with sixty 
blows. Sut as no funds are provided for the maintenance of the 
indigent, no mandarins thinks it requisite to attend to the enforce- 
ment of the law : the poor are, however, permitted to beg from 
door to door, aikd to beat a small gong, or drum, ija or at every 
house or shop, until they receive some alms, however small. A 
beggar may be seen keeping up a hideous din in a shop in Canton 
for half-an-hour> without receiving the slightest attention from the 
shop-keeper, until some customer comes in, when the noise of the 
beggar is quelled by a " cash," the (seventh part of a farthing,) and 
he goes off to another door. 

The Chinese are probably the most expert robbers, pirates and 
burglars, in the world. Thieves are divided into two classes : 
pickpockets and housebreakers. The first are migratory, and 
visit every fair; when they arrive, they call on the chief officer, 
and request permission to trade (plunder), which is readily granted, 
with the caution not to make a noise. Should they be caught in 
the act, they get a few blows. This fraternity have strict laws, 
which are rigidly obeyed. Should two bands meet at one fair, 
they must fight for the day, or surrender. They have regular 
places for depositing their plunder. These bands are very nunier- 
ous, and lure subject to the direction of chiefs, some of whom have 
600 men under them. The farmers all keep dogs to protect their 
prc^erty. • 

The maritime population are much addicted to piracy ; the Foo*> 
keen men and those of Canton, are famed for their lawless daring. 
In various places along the coast, and on the islands, villages are 
plundered by piratical junks, who carry off not only goods, but 
young girls. The people are surprised that we do not plunder them 
also, and that we pay for whatever we require. 

The first foreign ships that visited China, anchored near MacaOj' 



56 . VIjaAVSS, THS1& tVRBNOTH^ STC. 

and wem atta^ced bjr piraten ; frwi tbat time to the preaenty do 
boat^A €»w OK junk u aafe going any distance along the shore or 
from pert to port. The Eait IndUk Campany'* ships were all fully 
aimed, • circumstauce well known to the pirates^ as they never 
ventured an attack* The numerous edicts issued by the Emperor 
against the pirates, read well on paper but have no effect. Thepre^ 
seqt nK)de of hunting them is to start at an appointed time, first 
letting off fireworks, and making a great sound of munc, to give 
them timely warning to hide. !But if the government were really 
disposed to destroy the pirates, it could soon be accomplished 
by the authorities quietly embarking on board a merchant vessel, as 
their haunts are well known. From Turner's account, who was 
compelled to live with them in 1810, their junks amtoanted to up- 
wards^ of 500, the average siae of them from 100 to 800 tons, the 
largest oaxiied from 150 to 200 men with guns, (some of British 
manufacture) and long pikes, swords, ko. It is to be regretted 
that the mandarins are too ready to compromise the matter. With 
all the boasted severity of the laws, these miscreants continue along 
the coast and put the Imperial forces at defiance. The ancient 
mode was to appoint the leaders of the band of robbers to some 
important office; that was not found to answer well, as Ching, the 
notorious pirate, who was made admiral of the sea, afterwards 
aimed at-tibe throne of China unsuccessfully, but obtained for his 
son 01^ of the princesses of the blood in marriage. His position 
was of great importance to the contending parties in China at tiiat 
time* 

The 4Ajring acts of piracy committed on the Chinese coast, are a 
source c^ much uneasiness, particularly to merchants who find it 
necessary to ship treasure from one port to another. It appears to 
be essential that all vessels coasting should be well prepcured with 
fire anus. The first mode of attack with the pirates is to throw fire- 
balls on deck, which causes confusion. Captain Kelly, of the Isa- 
bella Jlobertson, and four of his men, were overpowered, and plun- 
dered of three boxes of money, of the value of 7,440 dollars, at ele<* 
ven o^dock in the forenoon. 

The province of Fookeen is allowed by all writers to be more 
independ^t than the others, and the coast is the stronghold of 
the pirates ; the people are bold, fearless of their own dntho- 
riticAy.of a shrewd character, with but little knowledge of trade as 
connected with European fordgners. The quarrels in the interior 
are very frequent, and savage encounters take place between whole 
villages and towns ; clanship being most preval^at j several fierce 
attacks M'ere made on towns close to Amoy during the reaidenee 
of Captain Gribble, and many lives were lost. The sea-board is 
infested by. pirates, and may be considered under no control 
whatever.. Qur Consul was informed of the capture and destruc- 
tion of a war-junk within six miles of Amoy, and partly from 
curiosijty idsit^ the place ; he succeeded in driving off about 400 



finteB, aad ddi^^red her oyer to (iie lieareat jna&dkoiid ; fia tw^e 
hours the pirates re^^aj^peared^ s^d the war-jimk nvte 'destroyed. 
No notice iras taken of tbas capture by the auth^rilJe6/'idi|Lon^ 
detectioii was easy* Our Consul^ CSaptoiid. . GriVble^ had ^myfLre 
armed^meu in thl& boat whto he imwe off the pirates. 

Beligion or fr&s Chikess. — ^It is difficult to eoniney a fislinet 
idea of the reMgion of the Chinese. The hi^ber classes are Deists ; 
and I heard their learned men express an utter disbehef of a fbtuie 
state. In order that ^ire may be the better enabled to see the pros« 
pects wMdi pure Christianity would have in China^ the following 
explanation of the Confuckui and other eystems is giyen; for 
which I sm ixidal^ed to Drs. Medhiffst^ Ghitslaff^ Blddgeniaii]; and 
others. While in China^ I was favoured by Dr. 0uteh4^ t^tts- 
laidng my '^ Analysis ei the Bible ^^ into CMn^e^ which* I caused 
to be printed; it is now extensively circulating throughovEt China^ 
and said to be producing a good effect. 

The Coi]£ician system of religion^ if religion it can be called^ for 
it has little or nothing to do with theology^ is mes^y a sehd^e of 
etibics and politics^ from which things spiritual aiid divi&e ^e gene- 
rally speaking excluded. In the works of Con^E^us; th^e are 
some aUufdons to Heaven as the presiding power of nature |lind to 
Fate as the deteorminer of all things j but he does not t^^^ar to 
attribute oiigiaafity to the one^ or rationality to the oth^r; ^^ Life 
and death are decreed by Fate; riches and povertrjr re^t Wit^' Hea- 
ven,'^ '- '-"i i' 

The Book of Odes, speaks of the Imperial Supreme, as ''ma- 
jestic in his descending and49urv^fingthe inhabitants of thb Worlds 
and promoting their tranquillity;'' who is to be worshiped and 
served with abstinence and purification; while he views the affairs 
of men, and rewards or punishes them according to their deeds. 

'' The principle of order, which regulates the universe," is 6alled 
the soul of the world, l^e heavens and earth, together with all 
animate and inanimate things, are, according to them, but one 
principle ; which is as universally diffused through nature, as wa- 
ter through the ocean. 

Their description of the creation of the world is as fdiows : 
'^ Before heaven and earth were divided, there existed one universal 
chaos; when the two energies of nature were graduaSy distin- 
guii^ed, and the 3rin and^ y^^g^ i- e. the male and female "pi^di- 
ples, established. Then the purer influence established, and l^ame 
the expansive heavens; while the grosser particles descedd^,- and 
constituted the subjacent earth. From the combination of ihese 
two, all things were produced ; and thus heaven is the &tiier, and 
earth the mother of nature." p. .t - 

Hwaenantze, an ancient author of China, whose W0i4£s^ a^ in 
great esteem, writes thus : — ^* Heaven was formless, a chaost ; and 
the whole mass nothing but confii^on. Order was produced hi the 
pure ether; out of the pure ether the univerae came forth; the 



68 



COSMOGONY. — TRINITY. — MAN. 



universe produced the air. When the pure male principle yang, 
had been diluted^ it formed the heavens. The heavy parts coagu* 
lated and formed the earth. The refined particles united very 
soon^ but the thick and heavy went on slowly; therefore the 
heavens came into existence firsts and the earth afterwards. From 
the subtile escence of heaven and earthy the dual principles^ yang 
and yin, were formed ; the joint operation of yang and yin pro- 
duced the four seasons^ putting forth their generative power, 
gave birth to all the products of the earth. The warm air of 
yang produced fire, and the finest parts of fire formed the sun. 
The cold air of the yin, being condensed, produced water ; and 
the finest parts of the watery substance formed the moon. 

Their system of cosmogony is connected with a scheme of dia- 
grams, which consists of a square, according to the following 
form :— 



4 


9 
6 
1 


2 

7 
6 


3 


8 



Of these . every odd number represents heaven, or the superior 
principle ; and every even number earth, or the inferior principle : 
the odd numbers combined make 25, and the even ones, with the 
decade, 30 ; and by these 55 numbers, they imagine that all trans- 
formations are perfected, and the spirits act. 

Another portion of their faith is in a material trinity, called 
heaven, earth, and man ; meaning by the latter sages only. Hea- 
ven and earth produced human beings; but without communicating 
instruction, their work was incomplete. Thus the sages aided na- 
ture in teaching the principles and correct forms for the govern- 
ment of the world ; and thus a triad is established of equal powers 
and importance. 

An extract from one of the Four Books, will better illustrate their 
belief. 

''It is only the thoroughly sincere, who" can perfect his own na- 
ture ; he who can perfect his own nature, can perfect the nature of 
other men ; he who can perfect the nature of men, can perfect the 
nature of things ; he who can perfect the nature of things, can 
assist heaven and earth, in renovating and nourishing the world.'^ 
Of Confucius, it is said by his followers, that his fame overflowed 
China like a deluge ; wherever there is blood and breath he [has 
been honoured, and therefore he is equal to Heaven. There are 
1550 temples dedicated to him; 62,600 animals annually sacri- 
ficed to his manes; and 27,000 pieces of silk offered; all of which 
are paid for by government. 



BIOOBAPHY OF CONFUCIUS. 69 

Confucius was bom in the year 650 B.C.; his father was a magis^ 
trate in the then petty kingdom of Lu, now the province of Shan- 
tung. At the early age of seventeen^ he was appointed as a clerk 
in the grain department ; which was then^ as it is now^ a govein- 
ment tax. When he was twenty-four years of age, he lost his 
mother, and resigned his appointment in order to mourn for her 
three years, according to ancient custom. This sacrifice on the 
part of a young man, in imitating and reviving the ancient custom, 
made a great impression on his neighbours, and they all succes- 
sively followed his example. From this province the practice 
spread throughout the empire, and it is at present strictly adhered 
to, even by the emperor. 

'- During the three years he paid great attention to the customs 
of the ancient kings, Yau and Sheen, in order to ascertain how 
perfection in morals was attained. In order to carry out his 
principles, he composed a series of works which set forth his 
doctrine. His next plan was to establish schools, for which pur- 
pose he traversed the whole empire, and became a favourite at 
court, so that free admission to the archives of the kingdom was 
given to him, 

ConAidus had great aptitude for illustrating his doctrine from 
the works of nature ; one of his dissertations will give the reader an 
idea of his style. On one occasion, when walking with scmie dis- 
ciples, he perceived a fowler catching birds with a net. Confucius 
asked him how it was he had caught no old birds. " The old 
bhds,'' said he, " are too wary to be caught, and the young ones 
that follow them attentively, likewise escape ; but the young ones 
that separate from the flock are what I generally catch. Occa- 
sionally I catch an old bird, but only when he foUoWs the young 
ones.^' '' Now,'' said Confiicius, " attend to my instruction : the 
young birds escape the snare only when they keep with the old 
ones ; the old ones are taken when they follow the young; thus it 
is with mankind. Presumption, hardihood, want of forethought, 
and inattention, are the principal reasons why young people are led 
astray. They rashly undertake acts without considting the aged 
and experienced, and thus, following their own notions, are misled, 
and fall into the first snare that is laid for them.'' 

Confucius, after many years' travelling, settled in his native 
state, Lu, where he established a kind of college, which taught and 
disseminated his doctrine, by the aid of 3,000 students, who col- 
lected his sayings, and called them Lun-yu, now one of the Four 
Books. 

Every district in the empire has a temple dedicated to Confti- 
cius ; and every school-room has a tablet with his name on it, be- 
fore which incense is burnt by the scholars twice a day. 

The writings of Confucius are held in great veneration, and 
consist of nine books, five of which are called the canonical works. 
The Four Books must be committed to memory by all who attain^ 



00 rHIUMOPHY OX COSgVCIVM. 

to duttsction in literuy rtuilL The fiist of the Four Boi^ ia the 
Ta-heo, which endeaToora to ahow that ia the knowledge and 
gOYenuaent of one's self the economy and goTOmment of a family 
most orieinate ; and from theace to a province ; and that the same 
rules and maxims should be practised in goreniiiig the empire. 
The whole work has a pohtical tendency ; one extract will readily 
show this : " I«et those who produce revenue be many, and those 
trho consume it few ; let the producers have every facility, and let 
the consumers practise economy; and thus there will be at all 
times a sufficiency of revenue." The leading features of his 
morality are subordination to superiors ; kind and upright dealing 
with our fdlow-men ; children to obey parents, vho, in their turn, 
are to obey the king, vbo is himself to ob«iy Heaveo. — whose son 
the king iSi 

It is recorded of Confucius, that the Prince of Lu dying, his son 
called ou ConiiiciuB to take die entire management of the state. 
The vd^dom ef the philosopher was veiy soon apparent in the good 
govenwfteat of the state> and the happiness of the people was 
greatly augmented. 

There was one of the nobles of this state who had hitherto com- 
mitted great crimes with impunity. Confucios had him tried and 
executed; this courageous act made him still more popular. 

Hia austere and truly moral principles, and the propriety and 
deco^m that were observed at court, procured him many enemies; 
and hia prince once more relapsing into a licentious state of lif^ 
ConfuciuA left the helm of affairs, snd took again to travelling, and 
writing his hooks, which, when completed, (at the age of aixty- 
dght.) he dedicated with great solemnity to Heaven. He died in 
479 B.C. in the seventy-third year of his age. His posthumous 
honours are numerous, and his descendants continue to dwell in 
Shantung province to this dayj and the heads of the £unily are 
the only hereditary nobility in the empire. The chief is called the 
holy duke. The Empeior Kanghe had a correct list made out of 
the descendants of the sage, and they niuubeied 11^000 males : the 
present is the seventy-fourth generation. 

A £aw of the select sayings of Confucius illustrate his doctrines. 
The Seam Kit^, a treatise on filial duty, was written by Confu- 
cius ; a work m more general circulation than any other in the 

Bt is on the origin and nature of filial duty, 
iiow did the ancient kings render the kingdom so 
! people lived in peace and harmony, and thatno 
tween superiors and inferiors ?— A.— 'Fihal duty 
iue, and the stem from whioh instmction in moral 
I forth. Filial duty leq^ures of u^ to carefidly pre- 
7 the bodies which we have received &om our 
puentffi. ii^nd to, acquire for ourselves a stotion in tbe-wctrld, thus 
regalatug our conduct by correct pri4cipl|BS,,4o,,As tatr^jisDut oui 



FII.IAL DUTY lie ALt CLASI^fiU 61 

names to fhture generations, and reflect glory on our parents: 
this is the nltimate aun of filial dnty. 

Think always of your ancestors j 
Talk of, and imitate their virtues/' 
Section 2nd. — ^Filial dnty as practised by the Son of Heaven. 
" If he loves his parents, he cannot hate other people ;' if he 
respects his parents, he cannot treat others with neglect. When 
his love and respect towards his parents are perfect, thode virtues 
will be extended to the people, all will imitate his example. 

When the one man is virtuous. 
The milHons will rely upon him.*' 
Section 3rd. — ^PiBal duty exhibited onUie part of nobles. 
'* When those vtho ar6 above all others ate free frbm' pride, they 
are not in danger from exaltation. To be elevated^ and yet's^cur^ 
from danger, is the w^y in which continually to ta^nttiti' nobility; 
and of abundanee to have nothing wasted. Thus* Jtr^Sei^rig their 
nobility and richeis, they will be able to protect thdi* ancestral 
possessions, and keep their subjects and people in' peace aind quiets 
ness. 

Be watchful, be very watchftd, / 

As though approaching a deep abys^, 
O^ as when treading upon thin ice.** ' 
Section 4th. — On the practice of filial duty by minfet^ of state. 
" No robes but those' which were allowed by the lows rf the 
ancient kings should be worn : language oppoi^ed to theii* usage 
should not be employed. If ministers of state speak bnly accord- 
ing to the rules, and act only in harmony with the principles of 
those ancient kings, their words wiU be unexceptionable, and their 
conduct irreproachable. 

Morning and evening be watchful : 
And dihgently serve the one man.'* 
Section Bth. — ^On the attention of scholars to filial duty. 
" With the same love that they serve their fathers, they should 
serve their mothers likewise ; and with the same respect that they 
serve their fathers, they should serve their prince ; unmixed love, 
then, will be the offering they make to their mothers : unfeigned 
respect the tribute they bring to their prince; and towards their 
fathers both these will be combined. 

From the hour of early dawn, till late retirement at night. 
Always be careful not to dishonour those who gave yoti birth.^^ 
Section 6th. — On the practicie of filial duty by the people. 
'* To observe the revolving seasons, to distinguish the diversities 
of soil, to be careful of their persons, and practice economy. Theref- 
fore, from the Son of Heaven down to the common people, Whoever 
does not always conform to the requirement of filial duty, will be 
overtaken by calamity : there can be no exception.'^ 

Section 7th. — Filial duty is the grand law of heavfen, the great 
bond of earth, and the capital duty of man. 



62 THESE THOUSAND ClltMBS. 

How glorious was the good master Yin, 
All the people anxiously looked up to him/^ 

Section 8th. — The influence of filial duty on government. 

" In ancient times, the illustrious kings governed the empire on 
the principles of filial duty. They would not treat with disregard 
even the ministers of small countries, how much less dukes, counts, 
and barons of every grade ; hence all the state gladly served the 
ancient kings. The masters of ancient families would not neglect 
even their servants and concubines, much less their wives and 
children. 

They exhibited a pattern of virtuous conduct. 
And the nations on all sides submitted to them.^' 

Section 9th. — " Of all things that derive their notions from hea- 
ven and earth, man is the most noble ; and of all duties which are 
incumbent on him, there is none greater than filial obedience. The 
feelings which ought to characterize the intercourse between father 
and son are of a heavenly nature, resembling the bonds which 
exist between a prince and his ministers. 

The great and good man, 
Is never guilty of an error.'' 

Section 10th. — Of crimes and punishments. 

^' There are three thousand crimes to which one or the other of 
the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty ; and of these 
no one is greater than disobedience to parents. When ministers 
exercise control over the monarch, then there is no supremacy. 
When the maxims of the sages are set aside, then the law is abro- 
gated; so are those who disregard .filial duty, as though they had 
no parents.'' 

Section 11th. — The best moral principles explained, 

" In teaching the people to love one another, there is nothing so 
beneficial as a proper understanding of filial duty. In teaching 
them the rules of politeness and obedience, there is nothing so 
good as a thorough knowledge of the duties which brothers owe to 
each other ; for improving their manners, instruction in music is 
the most efficient means that can be employed. Nothing is equal 
to properly inculcating the principles of propriety. Now, propriety 
of conduct has its foundation in respect. When princes respect 
their parents, children take pleasure in imitating them. When 
respect i|s shewn to elder brothers, the younger will rejoice to follow 
the «xajmple. When the soyereign is respected, his ministers will 
be de^ghted. Thu3 when oi^e is respected, thousands and tens of 
thousands' receive pleasure; and the few by paying respect, render 
the many happy," 

Sec^tion 12tb. — On remonstrance. 

^* Formerly,^ if, the emperor had only seven mii^i^ters who would 
remonstrate with him, though he were destitute of virtue, yet he 
lost not his empire. The nobles, though they might be devoid of 
principle, yet if they had five servants who would remonstrate with 



STATE RELIGION OP CHINA. 63 

them^ lost not their countries. And if a scholar had faithful friends 
to remonstrate with him^ he wonld not lose his good name.'^ 

Section 13th. — On the retributive results of filial duty. 

" The ancient kings served their parents with respect ; hence 
they could serve heaven intelligently. With them concord and 
obedience were maintained between seniors and juniors ; hence 
superiors and inferiors moved in their respective spheres. Even the 
Son of Heaven (emperor) must have some one above him, namely his 
father ; some one senior to himself^ to be regarded as his eldest bro- 
ther. But it is in the ancestral temple that he displays the most per- 
fect degree of reverence for his parents^ adorning himself with virtue, 
lest he dishonour his progenitors ; it is while worshiping with rever- 
ence^ that the spirits of his ancestors manifest themselves to him.^' 

Section 14th. — On the death of parents. 

" The sages taught the people, not to destroy the living on ac- 
count of the dead, nor to injure themselves with grief. The time 
of mourning is limited to three years, to show the people it must 
have an end. When a parent dies, a coffin and case is made ready, 
and the corpse wrapped in a shroud is laid therein. The male and 
female members of the family, moving by the side of the coffin, 
weep as they advance. A felicitous burial-place is selected, and 
the body Isid down to rest. And in spring and autumn, sacrificial 
rites are performed, to keep the dead in perpetual remembrance. 
This is the fulfilment of all filial duty.^' 

There is a state religion practised by the court, at Peking, and by 
all provincial governments. The objects of worship are things and 
persons; the sacrifices are thus divided'. 1st, great sacrifices; 2nd, 
medium sacrifices ; 3rd, small sacrifices for the multitude. In the 
following list, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, are the objects to which the 
great sacrifices are offered. Prom the 5th to the 13th are those to 
which the medium sacrifices are offered ; from the 14th to the 30th 
they are only entitled to small sacrifices. 1st. The heavens or sky, 
called also the imperial concave expanse. 2nd. The imperial earth. 
3rd. The great temple of ancestors. 4th. The gods of the land 
and grain. 5th. The sun, called the ' great light.' 6th. The moon, 
'night light.' 7th. The names of the emperors of former ages. 
8th. The ancient master, Confucius. 9th. The first patron of agri- 
culture. 10th. The ancient patron of silk manufacture. 11th. 
The gods of heaven. 12th. The gods of the earth. 13th. The 
god of the passing year. 14th. The ancient patron of the healing 
art; and the ghosts of faithful statesmen, scholars, &c. 15th. The 
stars. 16th. The clouds. 12th. The rain. 18th. The wind. 
19th. Thunder. 20th. The five great mountains of China. '21st. 
The four great seas. 22nd. The four rivers. 23rd. The famous 
hiDs. 24th Gr6at streams of water. 26th. Military flags and 
banners. 26th. The god of a road where any army must pass*, 
27th. The god of cannon. 28th. The gods of the gate. 29th. 
The queen goddess of the ground. 30th. The north pole, &c. &c. 



64 BMPSaOR THE HIOH PftlSBT. 

The priests of this state religiaa, are the empofor, (who is high 
priest>) kingSj nobles^ statesmen, and an mdefimte number of civil 
and military oflBicers. When the '^ high priest^' worships heaven, he 
wears robes of azure colour; for the earth his robes are yellow; for 
the sua his dress is scarlet ; for the moon, a pale milkv white. The 
nobles wear their court-dresses. The altar on which the sacrifice to 
heaven is laid, is round; the altar dedicated to the earth is square. 
It ii only when the sacrifice to the patron of silk manufacturers 
takes place, that the empress, princesses, and imperial concubmes 
are permitted to take part. All who take part in the first order of 
sacnfioesy are required to fast three days. Tfae^ must abstainfrom 
listening to music; from cohabitation with wives or concubines; 
from tnouning for the dead ; from eating onions or garlic, or drink- 
ing wine. The. viotims ofEbred aie btdlocks, 6ows, sheep, and pigs. 
There is sio particular- rule for killing ihem^ but th^ are all cooked 
and made ready for eating when blessed. - The saorifioe to Heaven 
is offered on the day of the winter sdstice ; to earth on the day 
of the summer solstice ; and the remainder at fixed periods. 

The. oevemonies consist in kneeling^ bowing, and knocking the 
head against the ground. When the Emperor offieiatesi this cere^ 
mony is partly dispensed with ; the nine knockings jo{ the head 
are turned into bows. 

Any infomiaUty in attending to the state rsligkm is punished by 
a fine; bul; as none but high officers of state are permitted to take 
part, this is of small moment. The punishment awarded to com- 
mon, people for holding communion with the gods, or announcing 
their wants in the same manner as the emperor^ is, {or the first 
offence, 70 blows ; and for a repetition, strangulatiflnu According to 
the 161st section of the criminal code, if the priests of Budha and 
Yaou imitate the state religion, it shidl be deemed a profiuiation of 
the sacred rites, for which they shall be expeUed. 

On occasions of drought, pestilence, famine, war, or any other cai- 
lamity,the Emperor alone prays to heaven for the people. The fid- 
lowing prayer for rain was made by the Empwori ia 1802. 

^' iGieding, a memorial is herel^ pres^ited, to cause affairs to 
beheard# 

" Oh, alas 1 Imperial Heaven, were not the.world afflicted b^ exf 
trsoidinary changes, I would net dare to present extraordmary 
services. But tlus year the drought is most unusual. Summer is 
past> and p^ rain has fallen. Not only do agiienltlue and human 
beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and inseots, herbs aind 
trees aliwost cease to live. 

"J, ike nmi^ier af Heaven, am placed over pumkmd, and am res* 
patmUe-fyr keeping the unxrld in order, and tranqmUiaing the peiofie. 
Althoju^ it is now impossible fi»r me to slesf or eat with compo- 
sure; eltibi^ugh I am scMKdhedwith grief 4ind tremUemtii anxiety; 
still, z&^ alj^ no genial or copiotts showera have been obtained. 
Some days ago, I fiasted, and offered rich sacrifices on the altars of 



£M?£BOE's FBATER VOB, BAIN. 65 

the gods of the land and the gram ; and had to be thankfiil for 
gathering clouds^ and slight Aowers; bnt not enough 'to cause 
gladness. 

'' Looking Up, I consider -tiiak Heairen's heart is benevolence and 
loTCi The sole caiise is the daily deeper atrociirr of my sins ; with 
but little sincerity* and Kttle devotion* Hence, I hare been unable 
to move Heaven^s heart, and bring dowji abundimt blessings. 

*' Having respectftilly searched the records, I find that in the 
34th year of Keen4ung, my imperial grandfather, theMgh^ honor- 
able, and pure emperor, reverently perfbrmed a ' great snow ser- 
tiee/ I feel impeUed, by teii thousand coiisid^£rt^ons3 to look up 
and imitate the-onage^ and'Withtreinbliiig'ahxiefy^ivasMy to assail 
heaven, and -esBcmine myself; irhiather in sivcriifciaii $erviides I have 
been disrespectfiil P Whither dr not pride and p^odigiiKty have had 
a place in myheBrt,^pri]]^gingup th^re imbbservedT' Whether 'from 
the length i)f time, 'iilave become Temissin«ttendirig'te thcaflTairs 
of goverameitttj and h»v*mg been^ unable to attend^td 'them wilii 
serious ditige^dey/iind'stifennous eifoa^t, I desei've''i«9tieh%tisil>]i? 
Whether porfebt I equity has been attiained in' cen&iving'vew^ds or 
infficting putiishinents*? Whether in raising miKusoteilms ^tifid lay^^ 
ing out gardens^ (I have distressed the people and wasted property? 
Wliether in the appointment of officers, I have ftlilcSd'tO' obtain fit 
and proper persosKs,' and Hiei^by the acts of government have been 
petty and* veiatfous' to 'the people? Whielftier punishxAedts have 
been unjustfymfiiotedbr not ? Whether the op^essed bavfe'found 
no means of aprpeal? Whether in persecuting het^rddoit sects, 
the innoeent have not' been involved ? Whethesr or not the magis- 
trates have^^ insulted the people, and Tefiised to listen to their 
^aiflEEdrs? Whether in the military operations oti the western fron- 
tiers, ikL&re may have been the horrors of human slaughter, for the 
sake of imperial rewards ? Whether the largesses bestowed on the 
afflicted southern provinces were properly applied, or the people 
left to die ill the ditchefe P Whether the eflForts to exterrainal^ the 
rebellious ihountaineers, or to pacify them, were properly conducted ; 
« whether they led to Hie inhabitants being trampled on as- mire 
and a^hes ? To all these topics, to which my anxieties have been 
directed, I ought to lirf the plumb-line, and strenuously endeavour 
to corre(5t what is^ wrong ; still recollecting that there may bef fkults 
which hevfe not occurred to me in my meditations; * * • 

'^ Prostrate, I beg Imperial Heaven, (Hwang Teen) to pfetttori mf 
%ttarance.a&d''stupidit$r, and to grant me «elf-renJc(vati6n-f for 
myriads of innocent people are involved by me, a single m^tt/ My 
sins tfre sonumerous, it is difficult to escape from them/ SuAimer 
is past and aut^xmn ariived ; to wait longer will be Itnpos^ble; 
Knodcing head I pray. Imperial Heaven, to hastcto and ■ coiifer 
gmeioas dldmsltance, a speedy and divi&ely beneficial riM^, to sftve 
^epeofde^s Mtes 5 and in some degiiee' redeem my iniquities;: Oh, 



66 PRAYSE BEFOEE WAR. 

alas I Imperial Heaven observe these things^ be gracious. I am 
finghtened. Reverently this memorial is presented.^' 

The following is a copy of the prayer of the Emperor Kcay^he 
before going to war : — 

" Sovereign Lord of Heaven — the supreme Euler — receive my 
homage, and grant protection to the humblest of thy subjects. 
With respectful confidence, I invoke thy aid in the war, which I 
am compelled to wage. Thou hast heaped on me thy favours, and 
hast distinguished me by thy special protection. A people without 
number acknowledges thy power. I adore in silent devotion thy 
manifdld kindness, but know not how to manifest the gratitudle 
which I leel. 

'' l^e desire of my heart is to give to my people, and likewise let 
strangers enjoy, the blessings of peace; but the enemy has put a 
stop to this, my most cheri^ed hope. Prostrate- before thee I im« 
plore thy succour, and in making this humble prayer, I am animated 
with the hope of obtaining thy signal favour. My only wish is to 
procure a lasting peace throughout the immense regions over which 
thorn hast set me.^^ 

One pf the sects of religionists into which the inhabitants are 
dividj^A.ip called Taou^ signifying a way or path, a principle, and 
the, pr^M^iplC; from which heaven, earth, man and nature emanate. 
l4aQU-ti9^ 0^ ,l4H>Urtsae/ the founder of this sect, was a oontempo- 
ra^V^tb /CQnfUWS.i but the Tapu, pr Bea^iojo, i^elf,, they assert is 
unc^i^«jtif4 ¥^d ai44erived» Hi3 &b«LlQU9 ii^pqm^t^ion is as follows ; 
'^ Ti^ j^qn^rftbl^; priii^ e^at^ befora th^. creatii^n, bQt was incar- 
nate in the time of Yang-kea, of the Shang, dynasty, b.c. 1^7; 
whep from the regions of great purity and eternal r^asoio^ a subtle 
fluid descended from the superior principle of nature, and was 
transformed into a yellow substance, about the size of a pill ;-which 
rolling into the mouth of a pearly damsel while she was asleep, 
ca;i;used<h^r'to conceive: the child was. not bom till eighty-«oiae 
years, afterwards, and on his appeamnce was grey-heikded, and was 
called XiBOu-tsze, ' the venerable one.^ :The second appearanee of 
this r Iff qnderfnl individual was in the person of L^u^to^, who was 
visite4f)?i7 Confucius b.c. 500. The third appearance was in aj>« 
633, *i^h^p a man . reported he had seen an old maOt I'^ho said. ' Go 
anc^ t^]|,the,;phnperor that I am Laou-keuen his ancestor.' ^;' 

Tbf^;yQta,ries of Taou preach virtue, and profess to promote it by. 
absti^^pj^oi^firpBgkthe world, and the repression of desire ; .the latt^ 
oty^ jl^ejf tlu^k is effected by eating their spirits, i. e. stopping their 
bi:q^^i^g,fpr,9i .considerable time, All depends on the ^byection. 
of.^^.,JjC^rtij,si9 they mortify every feeling, ioi order, tio,attain.unfc(> 
perfi^if^ w.i4i^^> • ^^ prevent intercourse with , the world, many of 
th^iretM^e, to the lulls and mountains. Thei theory of this &ith 
t^f^cl|^f^,tbf^\fq^ries, to depiri»e wealth and worldly olvi^q^ . Alchemy 
i^%Wfi*ii*^^ ^i*^^ thena; but,the.fr9qvent,impQsitUww. practised 



M !• 



THE TAOU KELTOlOXr 67 

by them having been discovered^ they have been driven fit>m th^ 
court. The head of this sect^ professes to have intercourse and per- 
fect control over the demons of the invisible world/ and conse- 
quently removes the deities from one temple to another^ as the 
Emperor does his officers* 

As a matter of conrse^ superstition reigns triumphant among the 
votaries of Taou^ so that ghosts and accidents are guarded against 
by having possession of a charm^ which this prince of ghosts 
disposes of; to be efficacious they must be renewed every year. This 
services of the priest, are particularly required after death has taken 
place in a house, to cleanse it from evil spirits. The estimation in 
which this sect is held by the government, cannot be better illus- 
trated than by giving an extract from a commentary on the Sacred 
Edict. The Sacared Edict was written by the Emperor Kang-he, a.». 
1723, and the commentary by his son and successor YungcMng. 

The 7th article inculcates the policy to degrade Strailige reK^ns, 
in order to exalt the orthodox doctrine. 

'* All these nonsensical tales about keeping fasts, ' cbllfebting 
assemblies, building temples, and fashioning images, aref^gned by 
those sauntering prie&ts of Budha and Taou to deceivi^'you; ^ Still 
you beUeve them, and suffer your wives and daughter^ t^'Tf6i?ship 
at their temples^ with their hair oiled, their faces paitited'; and 
dressed in scarlet, trimmed with green. I see ndrhei^ the good 
they do ; on the contrary, they do many shameful things^ ^hi^h give 
people occasion for laughter and ridicule. All thefer object is 
nourishing well the animal spirits, and lengthening out life for a 
few years : that k all.*^ 

Tlie fundamental doctrine of Buddah is that all things originated 
in nothing, and will return to nothing : annihilation is the summit 
of bliss ; and nonentity the future anticipation of all. The priests 
are held in great respect by their adherents, but the literati 
hold them in the greatest contempt. Their indolent lives and 
celibacy, so opposite to the Conftician doctrine, may] account 
for their degradation. Taken from the dregs of society they 
are what they 'pifeach, poor — ^from necessity not from ' dibice. 
There are severjiJ grades ainongst them, and when betterr opportuni- 
ties offer, they tlMS)tr off the garb, and take some other occupation. 
When strdling j^y^l^tdrs arrive in a city or village, they tak^ the 
chief manageiki^t of the performance. The caps thfey W^sur are 
made after the^ fehape of some of the Roman C^tholib' feieets of 
Europe. The similarity of their forms of worsMptb thfe-ftdiwan 
Catholic is very obsertaMe; namely ceHbacy, holy water, ipcAfj^ f<M* 
the dead, fasting, rosaries, (beadswMch they reckto while treating 
their prayers), the' worship of'relicis, together with nuiiteeridsVUich 
are attached to. their telnples. Prom the vast' numbfer* of the ' Bud- 
dhist priests in China, they are wretchedly poor, and subsisrt; by 
be^nig chiefly; ^nd^ ai*e not tiUowed while priests tO' rtttend the 
public examinations. This degraded state of the priesthood and 

f2 



08 BUBOHISXIOAL DOCTBINE8. 



the dikpidated stateof tiheir templeB» intimate tiiat tke system Is 
aa the wane. 

The Buddhists, to reconcile the Chinese to their doctrine, hare 
adopted a precept of Confucius, viz. : that the children are bound 
to sacrifice to their deceased ancestors. Thus, those who leave 
children and grandebildren ^[ideaTOur to provide for them ; but those 
who have nc^ing^to leave behind them, must wander about cold 
and hungry in the invisible regions* To provide the hungry ghosts 
who left no posterity to supply their wants, this sect have taken 
advantage of this general feeling, and have a ceremony every year 
.during tiie seventh moon; and as every district, village, and street 
is supposed to have hungry ghosts, there is one held in each ; this 
is all onder the doak of charity and benevolence, for which lai^ 
collections are made. The quantity of provisions collected tar 
those occasions is immense, so that one day in the year these im- 
postors are sure to fare well. Money is remitted to these poor 
ghosts, also clothes, furniture and houses, made of paper; for the 
monejy^ aiSmall'bit of gold leaf or. tin foil is attached to a bit of 
paper about three inches long; clothes are drawn on or cut out 
of paper, houses of card, cooking utensils of wood, all of which 
are consumed by fire. The baskets, when seen on Hie altar, are 
crammed full-**^to all appearance piled up; but on examination 
both baskets aud rice dowIs have fidse bottoms or are filled 
with shavings. The consumption of sacrificial paper forms a 
large item of trade. 

Buddhism wae imported into China about the year 60 of the 
Christian era, by Ming«ti one of the Han dynasty. At the present 
time the priests of this sect actually swarm in every province of 
China. Their commandments or interdicts, are five* 1st, From 
.the meanest ipisect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal whatever ; 
2nd. Do not steal ; 8rd, Do not marry, or violate the wife or concu- 
bine of another ; 4, Speak not falsely ; 5, Drink no wine or intoxi- 
eating liquor. 

The ten sins — 1, killing animals; 2, theft; 8, adultery; 4, false- 
.hood; 5, discord; 6, ofiensive language ; 7, idle-talk; 8, coveting; 
9, envy'^malice; 10, following the doctrines of false gods. Their 
vows are to renounce all family connexions, shave their head and 
reside in temples. The gods they worship, are* the three precious 
Buddahs — the past, present, and future ; tike goddess of mercy, the 
goddess of small-pox, the patroness of barren women, the god of 
wealth. The three Buddahs are gen^ridly represented half naked, 
with' woolly hair, in a sitting position. 

Their temples are adorned with images to their varioiis gods and 
goddesses ; an altar on which are plaeed candles and incense, and 
in the centre a very leige iron cauldron, for burning gilt paper in ; 
on one side of the hall is placed a large bell and a drum, which is 
only put in motion when a person of some importance comes to 
adore the god ; he is not to be aroused for ev^ry plebeian. They 



NUNNSRIB».--*-MAH01U3>AN8. 69 

Iiave no sabbalii«^ bat obitenre the new and fii& mooa with great 
solemnity ; they have service erery day, b^des one hundred and 
sixty fast days in every year. 

The service ccmsists in oflering up forms of prayer in the Sanscrit 
languagCy irhieh few of the priests nnderstand, and in repeating the 
name of Bnddah ('' O-me-to^Fah'^) tm> or three hundred thousand 
times ; the devotee is then at no gi^t distance from a personal 
vision of the god. The advantages promised, are that all the gods 
will protect the trae devotee ) all the demi^gods will attend Mm ; 
all the Buddahs will think of him ; no devil can harm him ; all his 
former crimes shall melt away, and he shall be ddivered from the 
crime of murder; and when he dies he shaQsee O^me^teMFohi 
What a field of promise China offers tathendssionflries of ^the one 
and true God ! 

Nunneries in China are nnmerouff* They are dedicated to the 
^'Goddess of Mercy/' and are connected with Buddhism. Yacaneies 
are filled tip by purchase and self-dedication^ and parents very 
often sell their female children. The inducem^it held enit is the cer- 
tainty of being, alter death, completely absorbed into the unknown 
Budha. Their dress is so much like that of the Bwidhist Piiests, 
that in the streets it is difficult to distinguish between them.. > The 
distinction between the novice and the nun in ord^s is|'0ttfs has 
the head completely shav^i and the iMSvice only a'smsdi poi^tian of 
the crown ; the other reiquii^ments ave to eat and dmkvqMBrioigly, 
and wholly to live on v^etable diet, with a 'peirpetual vow of 
virginity j the sick and poor are to be vitdted. ^teirseimii^d are 
performed morning and evening, and consist' of reciting! Out of 
their Sacred books ; and when specially employed to perfbrxh a ser- 
vice they are remimei^ted by sums visj^ying from 60 to lOO-eash. 
Their means of support arise from donations and subscriptions, and 
letting out their nunneries into lodgings, not unfrequently for 
the basest purposes. In the district ^ Ningpo there are upwards 
of thirty of these bagnios. 

The number of Mahommedans in China is said to be consider- 
able. There is a large mosque inside the city of Canton. • ;Many 
learaed Mahonitiiedans, from Balk and Samarkand, acconqipa&ied 
the "Western Tartars when they invaded China, a.»» 131®;;' These 
men were of infinite service to the state, particularly in dfflpalrting 
to them a knowledge of astronomy, and correcting their o^ii^dar. 
But still they were quite astray in their calculations '^untA' the 
arrival ^f' the Jesuits in the sixteenth century |ia ftbii, tbfciGM- 
nese had not proper instruments until then^ Afttrol0gy<^]^eatfs 
more sotight after* than astre«iomy, even to the pi^eseirtidityv >• ^ 
• The inoi^eadein the number of the Mohataiififedans-wwr «»teeat 
in a few years, afer to attract the attention of gweftrinfettt j itwas 
discovered that theii* ' increase- was owing to ik^t pun^ftsingriehifc 
dren whom their parents were unable to rear, and would otiber- 
wise have destroyed. Many of this persuasion have h»]A impoitant 



70 JJ6W8 IN CHIIIA« 

offices under goremmeiit. Thejr are stall nmmerotis aboat the' 
borders of the proyinee of Shen-*8e^ and generally congregate in 
districts. 

We have no acooimt of the number of Jews in China ; but that 
th^e are many in the inland provinces^ is very probable. There 
is an early record, of Jews in China, given by two Arabian 
travellers, who traded with China, a.d. 877, (see Foreign Inter-* 
course). Peristal, an Italian Jew, who wrote two centuries ago^ 
states that the Jews were at one time powerful in India and China. 
'^ Their chief residence was Chabor, to approach which you must 
double the Cape of Good Hope, enter the Indian Ocean, make the 
continent of Asia, and you will find Chabor .'' 

A Rabbi, named Benjamin of Tudela, in the 12th c^oLtury, 
visited many countries of the East to discover the scattered tribes. 
He found them in Persia, Samarckand, Tibet, and China. He 
states that part of the Ten Tribes crossed the Great Wall which 
divides China from Tartary, and settled in the former. Father 
Bicci, the learned Jesuit, while residing in PeluDg in a.b. 1610, 
met with a Jew who infeormed him that there were ten fisanilies of 
Jews residiiig-in Keafang-foo, which ia the capital of the province 
of Honiui ;- and that they had preserved a copy of the Pentateuch 
600 years* Father Bicci showed him a Hebrew Bible. The 
young JerW (although a Chinese student) identified the characters. 

The onerous duties of Bicd, and the distance from Peking (200 
leagues)) prevented him personally inspecting this Synagogue. 
But three years after he sent a Chinese Jesuit with a letter to the 
ditef^ who seemed so well aware of the fame of Bicci, that he in- 
^ed him to take possession of the Synagogue, as he was very old, 
provided he would abstain from meats that were forbidden. On 
this occasion the Pentateuch was minutely examined, and found 
in every respect conformable to the Hebrew Bible. 
^ The subsequent year. Father Aleni, a Jesuit and distinguished 
Hebrew scholar, visited this Synagogue ; but the chief was dead,, 
and nothing ooidd induce them to show their books. They stated 
that tiieir ancestors came from a kingdom of the West ; and that 
thcnr^al^abet had twenty-seven letters, but that the^ sddom made 
use 6( more than twenty-two j when they read the Bible they cover 
their ftUQ with a transparent veil. They read a section every Sab- 
bath-day,' and thus read the law in the course of the year. They 
call themselves Tiau-kin Kiau* *^ the sect which plucks out the 
sinew.^ They date their entry into China b.c. 258. Several Jews 
have been governors and ministers of state in China. 

LAN6trAGiB^.*-^According to the Bev. Mr. Medhurst, who is in-* 
fbrior to none of our Chinese scholars, and whose benevolent cha- 
racter leads him among all classes of the people, the elements, 
or radicals of the Chinese language, refer generally to wdl known 

* The fhildren of Israel eat not of the sinew which shrank.— Genesis xxxii. 32% 



CHtNESB LAKGUAGB. CHARACTERS. 71 

things^ Buch as the human species^ man and woman ; the parts bf 
the bodj^ head^ mouth, ear, eye, face, heart, hand, foot, flesh, bones, 
and hair ; human actions, speaking, walking, and eating ; things 
necessary to man, such as silks, clothes, door, and dty; the celes- 
tial objects, sun, moon, and rain ; the elements, wood, water, fire, 
metal, and earth ; the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms. 
The words referable to their substances or subiects, are classed so 
as to be discernible without much difficulty ; aud 1^ a nice calcu- 
lation of the additional number of strokes, the position of the cha- 
racter as given in the dictionary, is as well ascertained as by an 
alphabet. Every character occupies an exact square, of whatever 
number of strokes it be composed ; imiformity is the point of ex- 
cellence in which the Chinese delight, so that the page shall ap- 
pear as divided into an equal number of sections. The Chinese 
read from top to bottom, and commence at the right hand, going 
down each column. They write and print only on one side, so 
double each page. The edges are not cut in front; but on the 
top, bottom, and back of the book. Each v(dume contains about 
eighty pages, and the book is not more than half an inch thick. 

Where exactness is necessary, communication by oral medium is 
difficult. The sound E, for instance, has upwards of 180Q 
significations. When any business of importance is to be dis- 
cussed, it can only be properly understood by each party writing 
down his ideas. In the courts of justice, accusations and defences 
are obliged to be written ; even the instruction is not imparted 
verbally, in the Chinese schools, and to this may be attributed the 
slow march of civilization, as anything not seen is ill understood. 
Nothing can more strongly prove either their want of capacity or 
unwUUngne8s,than that few, if any, of their most distinguished 
scholars know anything of foreign languages, not evea to pro- 
nounce a double consonant. 

Dr. Ghitslaff, who well comprehends the language, referring 
to the roots, says a horizontal, a perpendicular, two oblique lines 
drawn in opposite directions, with an acute angle and dot, 
constitute the rudiments of which all Chinese characters con- 
sist, like stenography, many characters are alike in form, but 
a slight stroke or dot makes the difference. It is said that the 
niunber of words ranges from ten to sixty thousand. Morrison's 
dictionary contains upwards of twenty thousand ; but it is not to 
be supposed that anything like this number are required eitiier to 
speak or write the language. S. G. Stanton contrived to translate 
the Chinese penal Code with less than two thousand words, not 
including repetitions. Morrison's Bible, consisting of twenty-one 
volumes, has not more than 2,500 characters. The number of 
elementary roots or characters, under which, as heada of classes, 
all others are arranged, is 214. The original plan of the 
framers of this system, was evidently to form a separate symbol 



72^ DXVEaSITY OF SPOK£N LANGUAGES. 

foi each idea. Tbcj^ultitude of authors which China produced^ 
and the p]:^miuin that was at all times held out to scholars, are 
sufScient to accoiuxt for the different meanings attached to pne 
character. 

Thu3 there is scarcely a single character which is qonfiijied to onp 
meaning; hut a great numher which signify fifteen or twenty 
ideas, either alike in some points or diametrically opposite. This 
confusion and difficulty is remedied by a notes^ which as^ts 
the student, in translating the numerous ambiguous characterii 
with which the language abounds; figures bear a resemblance 
to the forms of material objects, such as the sun, moon, hillj eye, 
horse, child : combinations of ideas consist of two or three symbols, 
united to represent one idea. For instance, the sun and moon 
express brightness ; a tree or piece of wood in a door- way denotes 
obstruction; two trees stand for a forest ; the junption of eye and 
man points out the idea of seeing. In this system of symbols, the 
Chinese government have been enabled to preserve the union of so 
many millions of families, otherwise the kingdom would have been 
divided into many independent portions, in every way different 
from the parent stock ; again, their exclusive poUcy never could 
have been maintained, if it were not for this alnK>st unsurmountable 
barrier. The Chinese are proud of possessing this advantage, and 
besides, of having a univer^ language that speaks more distinctly 
to the eye than, to the ear. 

The learned and amiable Dr. Bridgman says, diversities in the 
modes of speech, and deviations from the most approved usages, 
exist in every tongue. That most prevalent in Peking among 
thie people about the court, differs considerably from that once 
dominant, {md still extensively used^ known as the Najniking dia*- 
lect, or the language of the southern court. In their present posi* 
tion, foreigners are unable to ascertain even the number <rf dialects 
spoken within the empire. The difference between the colloquial 
style and that used in books, seems to be greater in the Chinese 
than in most other languages. Standard works, which form 
the great body of national literature, ^e read and understood 
with nearly ^qual ease by people in cyery part of the empire, how*? 
ever their local dialects may differ from the style of those works. 
The system of intonation,, with few e^c^ptioi^i/s, appears to be one 
and the same in all the dialects. Again,, the characters preserve 
an unvarying form in all parts of the empire: a partial exception 
to this, however, is occasioned by the usjC of well-known charactersji 
slightly changed to express local phrases ; and then regard is had 
only to the soiind of the characters^ 

Ihe antiquity and originaUty of the Chinese language give it a 
claim to consideration, independent of its being the standard Ian* 
guage throughout the empire, and also cultivated in the neighbour^ 
ing kingdoms and colonies; so that it maybe computed as th^ 



LITERATUBB AND PRINTING. 73 

spaken find written medinm of commnnication between fate 
hundred millions of people, spread over a surface in extent larger 
than all Europe. 

The various dialects in which it is spoken^ notwithstanding that 
the body of the language has never been changed^ is thus accounted 
for: firsts th^e is no alphabet; and, secondly, China, like other coun- 
tries, has been rent into separate states, and the conqueror and 
conquered prevented from all communication ; and in this way the 
diversity of ex{M*ession and phrases must have originated. 

How it has been maintained with so few changes for a score of 
centuries, is still more easily accounted for ; as all who are dis- 
posed to improve their position must be intimately acquainted with 
the writings of Confucius, and what is termed the court dialect, or 
mandarin pronunciation. 

Chinese Literature. — The Chinese are a reading people, and 
the number of their published works is very considerable^ In 
the departments of morals, history, biography, the drama, poetry, 
and romance, there are no lack of writings, such as they are. The 
Chinese Materia Medica comprises forty octavo volumes : of statis« 
tical works, the number is very large. Their novels are said to be 
excellent pictures of the national manners. China is full bf l)ooks; 
new authors are continually springing up; the preiSs is actite, and 
the traffic in bookfi is a lucrative and most honourable branch of 
trade. When examinations take place in the capital or the^ palace^ 
the most clever students are chosen to fill the office of bookmakers. 
There are, however; few really new works, and all that appear are 
compilations and quotations; the author never venturing an 
idea of his own : and in this consists true learning according to 
Chinese notions. There is one work in the Royal Library, on the 
topography of China, which is said to consist of 5000 volumes ; 
some of the best translators that have had access to some extracts 
from this giant, were sadly disappointed, as it appears to be a mass 
of confusion, without any attempt at order or proper arrangement. 
There are numerous small treatises, similar to our tracts, gratuit- 
ously distributed by private individuals, inculcating morality and 
virtue. Printing is evidently cheaper in China than in Europe, 
when ten volumes, eaeh containing 100 pages, can be purchased 
for less than a dollar. Every peasant and the poorest fisherman 
can read and write. Private and public schools are numerotts in 
every province, and entirely independent of government. Ofejca- 
sionally an examiner visits all schools to ascertain the qualiiicatioks 
of the teachers. 

The third report of the " Society for diffusing useftd knowledge 
in China,'' held at Canton, 20th November, 1837, contains a re- 
view of the existing literature of the Chinese, and an enumeration 
of the " catalogue of works contained in the imperial library at 
Peking/' It concludes with these remarks : — 

''From this cursory review which we have taken of Chinese 



74 OENEBAL t^EFICIENCY IN KNOWLEDGE. 

literature^ we are enabled to perceiTe what is the range of existing 
knowledge in this country. A philosophy, which, leaving alone all 
speculations concerning the origin and fiiture state of man, con- 
&ies itself wholly to the relations between man and man in this 
life, occupies one fourth portion. A history and a geography^ 
almost exdusively national, occupies another fourth portion ; while 
the existence of other nations, and the practical lessons to be 
learned from the rest of mankind, are almost wholly forgotten. 
With the exception of agriculture and weaving, the useful arts of 
life find hardly any place in Chinese literature. Mechanical and 
chemical sciences are scarcely thought of. Medicine we know to 
consist, for the most part, of mere quackery. Astronomical and 
mathematical sciences are chiefly derived from Europeans, and the 
knowledge of them is confined to a very few persons ; while the 
vagaries of astrology and divination, find a place not only in their 
literature, but also in the arrangements of government. Natural 
history is regarded only as an adjunct to medical science, if the 
practice of medicine among the Chinese can be dignified with the 
name of science. Seeing that so many are the defects of Chinese 
literature, it becomes our imperative duty to ex^ our utmost 
eneigies to supply their lack of knowledge.^' 

As regards their philosophy, the committee observe : — 

'' Several of the classical works, which form the foundation of 
this first department of Chinese literature, have already, by means 
of translations, been placed within the reach of the European 
public. From these we are enabled to perceive to how low an 
elevation in philosophy the most esteemed sages of China have 
attained.^' 

In the geography of even their own country they are almost as 
deficient as they are of that of foreign countries. A map of the 
province of Fokien, which I saw at the viceroy's residence at Foo- 
choo, would have disgraced the New Zealanders, or aliy other bar» 
barous nation. It had no bearings — ^no divisional lines — ^no pro- 
portions ; and that part which we know, the Min river, was entirely 
incorrect. Yet this map was kept a secret; and our Consul at 
Foochoo could only procure a copy, by paying a Chinese largely 
for copjring it by stealth. In astronomy, music, surgery, medicine, 
chemistry, military and naval science, fine arts, &c.> they are 
utterly deficient. 

The imperial historiographers of China, are employed to re- 
late every thing said and done by the reigning Emperor, and 
to record, likewise, a true account of every public event during 
his reign. . 

These documents, when prepared, are all sealed up, and de«« 
posited in a large iron chest, which is placed in the prime minis- 
ter's tribunal ; and is not opened until after the emperor's death, 
when, should there be any thing unfavourable in his biography, it 
is again locked up for several generations ; this is to prevent the 



LITBEART EXAlillTATIOKS. 75 

compilers being influenced by either fear or flattery of the prince 
or his descendants. 

Dr. Bridgman states^ in his Chinese Christomathy^ that there is 
published in China^ by order of the government^ the most com- 
plete topographical and statistical history of all the provinces and 
departments of China^ vhich taking the iivhole as a body of works 
on statistics^ is luiequalled in any country. It is much to be re« 
gretted that this work has never been translated^ as it would be of 
great benefit to the trading community, and a hope is entertained 
tiiat our consuls will endeavour to procure so desirable a work. 

It is on the literary institutions of China, the government chiefly 
relies for stabiHty and support. The military forces are not adequate 
to the task ; and hence the great attention and uniformity of their 
system of education throughout the whole of the "Celestial'' 
dominions. Wealth and station have their influence here as well 
as elsewhere^ but learning is indispensible to attain to an ofiSce of 
trust, and this is the policy of the state by opening a way to the am- 
l»tious, that they may attain to the highest office in the government, 
and thus prevent the overthrow of the ruling powers. The governors 
and all the officers under the crown have distinguished themselves 
by their intellectual powers ; but they must yield implicit obedi- 
ence to a most absolute monarch ; strict examinations are held 
triennially to discover the talent of the community, and are open 
to all, except priests, play-actors, and menial servants. Two 
^uoniners are selected by the Emperor, and on those who come to 
Canton 600 taels are bestowed for expenses ; these are assisted by 
ten others^ who are selected from the local officers. The average 
number of students in Canton on those occasions, exceeds eight 
thousand, who assemble at a large hall (Kungijuen) or college 
designed for the purpose. These students must have been at for- 
mer examinations called Sewtsae, — and are divided in classes, 
but none are admitted unless previously enrolled by the literary 
chancellor, of their native province, who certifies that their family 
have resided there three generations ; their age, features, and lineage 
are recorded. The examinations continue several days, and the 
students enter the hall the day previous, and are detained there two 
nightsand a day without food. On thelastday of examination fiveques- 
tions are given, relating to the history and political economy of China. 
The themes must be sententious ; the poetry grave and important, 
and all must concern things of real importance ; but any reference 
to state policy must be avoided. Eadi thesis must be inspected by 
the proper officer; the number of themes and the characters are 
limited ; and at the close of every theme it must be stated how 
many alterations were made in the characters ; and if the number 
exceed one hundred the student is excluded. It appears that up- 
wards of one hundred are subject to that punishment at each 
examination. All intercourse with friends must cease, and if it ia 
discovered that any one wrote any portion of the theme of another. 



76 IITEEART DECREES. 

both of them shall be severely punished. On entering the hdlthe 
student is searched^ and if any book or writing be discovered on his 
person^ he shall be punished, and compelled to wear the wooden 
collar round his neck ; his tutor and father are also severely pu« 
nished. A watch is kept at the examination hall by military officers 
day and night. Out of so many candidates only seventy-one can 
obtain the degree (Keu-jm) ; the names of these are published by 
proclamation, within twenty-five days after the examination has 
closed. Three guns are then fired to commemorate this important 
event ; a banquet is prepared on a grand scale, and is attended by 
all the civil officers of Canton, together with the governor. Two 
lads, dressed like naiads, holding in their hands branches of the 
olive tree, contribute to the enjoyment by a song from the ancient 
classics, and thus closes a scene worthy of imitation in other coun^- 
tries. 

The Chinese system of education entails great misery on those 
who do not succeed ; as, in their early years, all their energies are 
devoted to the attainment of the degrees which qualify them for 
holding civil offices. 

Almost every family selects one or more of their sons to devote 
their whole attention to Confucian principles. But numbers of 
candidates are doomed to disappointment : on some occasions, pro- 
bably 'onl^one hundred will be qualified out of seven thousand; 
and man^ that •obtain the qualification never gfet employment, par- 
ticukrfly'if -they are without the means of tniefeslAng the man- 
darixts in theb favour. 

The finrt degree is conferred by an officer who is generally 
resident in every considerable town, with the sanction and ap- 

;roval of an officer from Peking, who periodically visits each town, 
'he second degree (keu-jin) is only conferred at the capital city of 
each province, perhaps many miles from a man's own locality. The 
third degree (tsin^sze) iis only conferred at Peking, which may pro- 
bably be a thousand miles from his native place. Thus, the dis- 
appointed spend all their energies, hoping against hope ; occasion- 
ally they become tutors and schoolmasters. The frequency with 
which examinations are held diverts them from persevering in any 
useful o(;cupationB ; and the consequence is, that'in the neighbour- 
hood of Canton, thousands of them may be seen loun^ng and 
begging in a most miserable state of destitution ; nevertheless, they 
maintabi the- Jrosition of " gentlemen-scholars,''^ and refuse to 
Jow» their dignity by turning to any usefril employment. 

Books of good advice are published, from time to time, by the 
empecDmj some of the foHowmg are daid to have been composed 
by the learned Jesuit, Adam. Schall. THie foIlowing^ sermons, or 
instmirtions, were written by the empdrors of the present dynasty, 
on thenar!? <>f governing the people, especially directed to the atten- 
tion o£ all' the officers in d.uthonty, 

Hwang*^ Sbiug-Heen. — ^StoR elaborate work consists of nearly 



BOOKS OF GOOD ADVICE. '77 

200 volumes, piinted in very large charaoters, that aged statesmen 
may study this vade-mecum with greater facility; each volume 
contains about twenty leaves* 

The first lesson^ or sermon, was written by Teen*ming, who was 
the first Mantchou chief that aspired to the throne of China; it 
was written before the conquest was completed. 

1st. A prince is the son of Heaven ; all the ministers and public 
functionaries are his sons ; and the people are again the children 
of the former. A prince serves Heaven as a father, and never for- 
getful, thinks with reverence about rendering his virtues illustri- 
ous, and looking up, receives the gift (empire). The ministers 
should, therefore, view the emperor as their father, and serve him 
as such; never be rapacious, or play the traitor; protect the 
people ; observe the laws, and, above cUl things, see that im treason 
is spreading amongst the people, 

2nd. " Lasting peace." This is only to be attained by having 
a wise prince and a faithful minister, who must, with united 
strength, co-operate : second to these is the blessing of Heaven. 
Let there be the utmost justice, in imitation of the righteous 
arrangements made by heaven and earth; then prosperity and 
success will prevail throughout the land. Now, when the one man 
(emperor) loses his virtue,. calamity spreads to all regions, and the 
evil is worse than that wrought by demons. This was instanced 
on occasion of the Emperor Wanluh's attacking a friendly empire, 
when all the troops brought against the Mantchous were killed. 

The third sermon is addressed to all kings, princes, ministers, and 
those in authority. Se wise, and just in all things, do not hsoiker 
after wealth, and your rule will be more firmly established. All 
evil practices proceed from the heart, keep it therefore in a virtuous 
state, and all events will prove fortunate; you will be praised, and 
become popular; riches will fall to your share, and your glory will 
be resplendent. On the other hand, if you harbour vicious 
thoughts, the contrary will take place. 

The next emperor was Shunche, who had for his adviser and 
most intimate mend, Adam Schall, the Jesuit. The first volume 
contains a discourse on government, piety, sacred and fiUal duty, 
study of the sages, humility, economy, and continence. The 2nd, 
instructions for ministers, on petitions or receiving reproof. 3rd, 
On choosing people for officers ; on restraining inferiors. 4th, On 
managing wealth ; on giving alms ; on propriety towards the gene- 
ration past and gone. 5th, On promoting literature; exhortations 
to commanders-in-chief. 6th, On quietly governing the people, 
avoiding punishments ; repressing greedy parasites ; avoiding evil, 
and forgiving faults. 

In his discourse on government, the emperor acknowledges the 
great responsibility he is under to Heaven, to whom he is alone 
accountable; and strongly inculcates the doctrine that princes 
were created for the people. He duly adwts the claims of the 



78 «BB EMPBROK^S SERMOIfS. 



people to good government. He expatiates on the oppression of his 
predecessors (of the Ming dynasty)^ in imposing taxes that the 
people conld not pay ; on the usurpation of the nobles in taking 
possession of the people's ground^ and eonrerting it into hunting 
and pleasure grounds. The emperor's respect for the departed 
was proved by his having the tombs of the Ming princes repaired 
and beautified. 

Kanghe, who inherited the throne of his father^ Shunche^ and 
also his taste for writing and preaching, has bequeathed sixty 
volumes. That addressed to the authorities is — ^for plain speaking 
and good sense — a novelty in Chinese Ufcerature, and in theory 
excellent. 

His Majesty says : '^ I am at my post early in the morning ; 
assemble in my presence, and do not spend the time in idle foolish 
ceremonies, but let business be despatched. The land is full of 
robbers ; the people are suffering oppression ; assist to put an end 
to this state of affairs, then you will be ministers indeed.'' 

Science is now at a very low ebb in China, whatever may have 
been its former state. 

Marco Polo states that he found in China upwards of five thou* 
sand astronomers. But it has been proved that their early astro- 
nomical observations were absolute forgeries — as the Jesuits found 
no oiDe able to calculate an eclipse. The instruments found by the 
Jesuits miust- have been introduced from a distant country, as they 
werOfOiqly adapted to tibie latitude of 86^ north, whei^as Nankin is 

o3 .In". 

The learned M* de Ouignes remarks, that they never knew 
anything of astronomy, not even in his day : they mee astrologers, 
and consult the stars for both public government and private 
affairs. 

Emioeation. — The migration of the Chinese, originated in the 
Tartar conquest. The Chinese sought peace in a distant country. 
Fookeen and the adjacent districts were the last conquered by the 
Mantchoos, and from thence are the principal migraitions. 

Tb^ tide of seaward emigration from China, is principally to 
Singapore, the islands and stations in the Straits, and to the Dutch 
settlement ^oi Java, Borneo, Bauca, &c. Great complaints are made 
by these-Btho.retum, of the Dutch system of furming. the revenue 
to any lOf e who will bid most; consequently authority is conferred 
witbouit.jaxiy /regard to character, and the consequence is oppres* 
sitm aodtd tjiranny. The industrious and well-disposed- Chinese 
emigvaJfttSi giine a sad account of the treatment th^ are subject to 
bytfaje-offioonsof the Dutch government, and by secret associations 
of thein own. countrymen. As for justice, it is out of the question 
to obtain :it./ According to the laws, the mq/oW/y' of witnesses 
decidesitibe .magistrate's judgment; and from the great extent of 
the Triad, Society throughout the Straits, there is no lack of wit- 
nesses to .sweair against any. who do not belong to their nefarious 



SMiaKATION OF THE CHINESE; 70 

syatem. The well-disposed Chinese emigrants ore plundered^ and 
frequently murdered; but such is the pressure for food^ that emi- 
gration is yearly increasing to the Eastern Archipelago^ &c. 

Chinese emigration differs from that of all other countries in this 
respect, that it is only sheer necessity that will compel them to leave 
their native home, and it is always their intention to return as soon 
as circumstances will permit them. But it frequently happens that 
they remain and intermarry with the natives, and are at the present 
day by far the most nnmerous colonists in the Eastern Archipelago. 
The better class of Clunese settlers may be described, as enter- 
prising, keen, laborious, and persevering; those in trade are expert, 
speculative, and judicious. Their inteUigence and activity have 
obtained for them the management of the public revenue, in almost 
every part of the Archipelago ; the traffic with the surrounding 
foreign states of the Archipelago is principally in their hands. The 
majority of these settlers are in Singapore, Java, Penang, and 
Borneo. 

The number of Chinese settlers Jrthe Straits, Eastern Archipe- 
lago, Siam, Cochin and China, the Phillipine islands, is probably be- 
tween one and two millions. In Siam alone the ntunber is esti- 
mated at 500,000; in Borneo at 150,000; in Java 120,000; in 
Bauca at the tin mines 50,000; in Singapore 30,000, and so on. 
At Singapore they ase rapidly reclaiming the jungle from i^ «d»ode 
of the tiger and^ the serpent, and substituting pbnlabirons'iind 
manuffu^ures:«if Sugary nutmeg, pepper, cathechn, terra* japomea, 
sago, &c. No nation is so well adapted for reclaiming and civil- 
izing the beautifiil, but still almost useless, regions oi tiie Satstern 
seas as the Chinese, and under our rule encouragement woold be 
given to their migrations. The Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese 
governments are afraid of Chinese colonists. 

When at Amoy, in June, 1845, 1 found a French barque laden with 
Chinese emigrants, bound for Bourbon. I obtained an interview with 
the French gentleman who was conveying the labourers, and he 
favoured me with a copy of the agreement (which I have given to 
Her Majesty^s government), signed by himself, and a Mi*. F. D. 
Syme, an intelUgeut Scotch merchant, then residing at Amoy. 
Monsieur Booque informed me that he could have obtained any 
number of able*bodied useful labourers; that the mandarins ex*- 
pressed th^nselves gratified at the poor people getting a;|)irospect 
of subsistence, and that not the slightest obstruction wasioflhred: 
quite the reverse. M. Bocque h9.d to guard against tli6 CMnese 
running away, or jumping overboard, after they had leeeiv^^their 
money in advance. Last year he took a cargo of emigcailts from 
Penang and Singapore to Bourbon, but found them rather^trouble- 
some characters, hence his present voyage to Amoy. Australia and 
our West Indian colonies might be largely supplied with labourers 
from^ China* A respectable gentleman, named Btown, j^ropdsed 
tOiConv^ a ship full of labourers from Uong^*>Kong to Jamaica^ 



80 MSAOV-TSZi:^ OB ABOEIOINE8. 

bat a timid and procrastinating policy ultimatelj defeated the 
project. 

We know nothing, either as regai'ds the numbers or the con« 
dition of the dependent possessions ; but among the people sub- 
ordinate^ allied to^ or incorporated with Chiua^ one in particular 
deserves special notice^ viz :-^the Meatm-tsze ; a word said by Dr. 
Morison^ to signify '* grain growing in a iBield ; the first budding of 
any plants ; numerous descendants/' &c. 

These unsubdued tribes are supposed to be the aborigines. 
They are divided into forty tribes, and occupy the borders of the 
provinces, lying in the western part of the empire, Sze-chuen^ 
Kwei-choo, Eook-wang, Yun-nan, and Kwang-se. The various 
tribes fdl ^ffer in their way of living, as also in their language ; 
and although scattered over an immense territory, their national 
character as to clanship, is so stiong, that some of them who are 
in partial subjection to the Chinese government, will forfeit their 
allegiance, and openly join the unsubdued portion, in open rebellion 
against the Chinese authorities. 

The Meaou-tze, have been many years a great source of uneasi- 
ness to the government. The Emperor Keen-lung, wasted an im- 
mense armv for several years, in unsuccessful contests. The Em- 
peror Kea-King was compelled to sue for peace from these hardy 
mountaineers. In 1832, a rebellion broke out near Leen-choo, on 
the frontiers of Kwang-tung, (Canton) province, which proved most 
destructive to the imperial army. One dark night the rebels fast- 
ened lights on the horns of goats and sheep, and let them loose 
about the mountains. 

The imperial troops by this diversion were sent to attack the ima- 
ginary enemy, when the real one came down in a defile, and com- 
mitted dreadful slaughter. Kin-lung, the rebel chief, about the 
same time, met the Viceroy of Canton in open battle, and slew 
many of his troops, surprised the garrison one night, and fired the 
gupowder magazines, so that many thousand Chinese soldiers were 
blown up. After campaigning a considerable time, the rebels qui- 
etly laid down their arms. The Peking Gazette announced it as a 
victory, but the fact was that the Chinese Generals paid a very 
large sum of money for this nominal victory, which is the usual 
case with the Chinese government. 

The Meaou-tsze are of middle-size, excellent horsemen, and have 
few traces of the savage in their exterior, although the Chinese 
paint them in the worst colors. They manufacture their own 
clothes and warlike instruments. 

The existence of such a race in the neighbourhood of Canton 
province, often spreading terror to Canton city itself, is one of 
the numerous proofs of the utter helplessness of the government, 
general and local. 

A summing up, or general examination, of the Chinese character 
jmd state of society is reserved for the last chapter; when the in- 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 81 

ferences to be drawn from the whole of the facts stated will be 
more manifest^ and when the Christian philanthropist will be ap« 
pealed to in aid of extending the means of improving the con^- 
tion^ and promoting the mond and spiritual welfare^ of one-third of 
the human race now existing in the immense empire under review, 
and with whom we must inevitably be brought into more intimate 
association. 



CHAPTER III. 

AGRICULTURAL, MANUFACTURING, AND MINERAL 

PRODUCTS. 



Agriculture and Vegetable Productions. — China owes its Ji^tmial 
wealth and extensive population to thrifty and skilful agrif^i^ture. 
Shin-ning, a celebrated inventor, is said have been the fir^t who 
stibstituted grain for raw meat, and taught the nation cultivation. 
The Chinese sovereigns always encouraged agriculture. Waaft 
(179 B.C.) even took the plough into his hand; which gave rise to 
a festival and custom that is practised to the present day; and by 
no former emperors has this branch of industry been encouraged 
more than by the present sovereign, Taoukwang. The success of 
Chinese agriculture is conveyed in the homely instructions of the 
emperor to his children (subjects), viz. : '^ Keep your lands clean, 
manure them rithly, and make a farm resemble a garden/' No 
fields are laid' down in pasture; tillage in every practicable s|K>t is 
universal : two, three, and four crops are obtained in the year from 
the same ground, viz., rice, potatoes, pulse, cabbage, and toirmps. 

Manure in a liquid state is in extensive use; one of tbe modes 
of pfieparation is to Steep it several months in a reservoir^ and when 
in aliquid state, it is reduced to cakes, and mixed with putrid vege- 
taMe matter, oir with oil-cakes, human hair, or lime fromipqwdered 
oyster-shells,, ashes, &c. 

The proWjieei^^liich He to the north and west of Cbina^ such as 
Ohih^K, Shan-se^'axid' Sz-chtien, produce in great ab.undaiu^ wheat, 
bifrteyi isfevferal Imict^ of inillet, tobacco, peas that are always grew, 
also black and yellow peas for feeding horses; but in the southern 
prttVincds, thfisef SOTts o^^^ain are in no esteem. 

The saftife' ]^rovinces likewise produce rice, in several places where 

G 



82 TIMBER. — CAMPHOR TREE. 

the earth is dry^ but then the crop is not so abundant^ besides it is 
harder^ and requires more boiling than the rice of the southern 
provinces^ especially How-quang and Che-keang, which produce 
great quantities, as the lands lie lower and have plenty of water. 

China produces a great variety of vegetables, including turnips 
and carrots. Potatoes^ except the sweet description^ are not en- 
couraged. White cabbage is a most excellent vegetable, particU'v 
larly in the northern provinces, and constitutes the food of poor and 
rich ; during the winter it is much improved by the frost. 

Cotton is grown in Kiang-nan to a great extent : the sugar-cane 
in the southern provinces, and especially in Formosa, where the 
best sugar in all Asia is produced. Of grains, rice grows in most 
of the provinces, except the cold ones, where wheat and barley 
thrive. As the Chinese are great smokers, tobacco is cultivated 
with much care. Pulse is in abundance, as food for man and 
beast. 

The camphor tree, a species of laurel, is peculiar to China and 
Japan, for it is not known whether the camphor tree of Borneo 
and Sumatra is the same. To obtain the camphor, the branches 
are cut oflF, steeped in water, and then boiled. The camphor forms 
a sediment, which is refined, and then brought to market. There 
are whole forests of this tree in Formosa; in China itself, it is 
found only in a few districts. Its wood makes excellent furniture, 
and is proof against insects. The cassia tree grows in great abun- 
dance in Yun-nan province. The bark is stripped off and dried ; 
that of a brownish-red colour is best. Great quantities of this 
bark are exported from Canton, as it serves all the purposes of ex- 
pensive cinnamon. 

There is in general a great want of timber ; the oak is scarce, but 
the fir-tree supplies its place ; the sapanwood, a tree peculiar to 
China, is inferior to fir. With the exception of the mountainous 
districts, there are few forests in the country, for every inch of 
available ground is made into arable land. Mantchoo Tartary 
abounds in primeval forests^ whilst Chih-li does not produce suffi- 
cient timber to make rafters for houses* In Fokien, the dwellings 
are of solid granite, and sometimes not a piece of wood is to be 
seen in the whole construction. The iron-wood, which is used for 
anchors, and various other purposes, is met with in China ; but 
teak is not indigenous. The le-pih la-shoo, wax tree, is an extra- 
ordinary production. The sweet blossoms attract an insect^ simi- 
lar to our bee, which is an industrious wax manufacturer, as long 
as the blossoms remain. The tallow-tree resembles the birch-tree ; 
the bark is white, the branches slender, and the leaves of a dark, 
green. The fruit grows in bunches, and is inclosed in a brown 
capsule, which contains three kernels, every one of which is coated 
with tallow ; the kernel contains a great quantity of oil, which is 
pressed out and used for the lamp. It grows in Kiang-se, Keang- 
nan, and Che-keang, and is one of the most useful trees which the 



RICE CULTIVATION. 8S 

comitry prodtices. The varnish^tree resembles tlie ash. When 
the tree is full grown^ several horizontal incisions are made in the 
trank^ and oyster-shells are there placed to receive the oil deposited 
dnring the night. The paper-tree resembles the fig-tree ; the rind 
is peeled off and made into paper. 

The great article of consumption throughout China is rice, of 
which there are three varieties ; the red, the small, and the large 
rice, together with the dry, and the glutinous ; the two latter are 
grown on dry and usually hilly spots. The great requisites in 
raising rice are water and manure. The average size of the fields is 
from four tOf six acres. After ploughing and harrowing, and com- 
pletely pulverizing the soil, and reducing it to mud, it is fit for 
sowing. A few days before the rice is sown, it is first steeped in 
liquid manure : the shoots may be seen in three days after setting ; 
when the water is gradually drawn off. When about six inches 
high the plants are all transplanted to fresh ground, and again 
covered with water, until near harvest-time. In some districts the 
division of labour is so well carried out, that the husbandmen pur- 
chase the rice plant from a nurseryman, or rearer of the vegetable, 
when it is ready for transplanting; thus time is saved for the land, 
while it has been employed growing other crops, and the nursery- 
man is responsible for the good quality of the seed-plant. The 
usual period from seed-time to harvest is six months for a crop of 
rice. When one crop is cut, or even before that period, another is 
planted, or rather transplanted, the same day probably. The in- 
crease is calculated at about thirty-fold. The average wages for 
the labourer's work of transplanting (up to their knees in mud 
and water) are thirteen cents per day. The straw of the rice, called 
** paddy ^' straw, is converted into brooms and brushes, and also 
largely exported. The importation of rice from America is increas- 
ing; the average importation is about fifty-five million pounds 
weight. 

A separate account of the growth and manufacture of tea will be 
given in a subsequent part of this work, when treating of the com- 
merce of China. 

The Chinese may more properly be called gardeners than agri- 
culturalists, as the space allotted to each family is very small, and 
on this they must subsist. A Chinaman, in the country parts, is 
seldom seen without a basket and rake, with which he collects any- 
thing in the shape of manure ; Chinese have been seen dressed in 
silk, following the buffaloes and hogs, to collect whatever is dropped. 
They convey sand a long distance to mix with a heavy soil, and 
loam to put on that which is too loose. In winter, the soil is fre- 
quently thrown up in large heaps, after being mixed with manure; 
but it is never allowed to remain fallow long. A small grass bor- 
der divides one field from another. Their domestic animals are 
confined to one particular place at a time by a rope : only those 
that are required for agriculture are kept, as the Chinese have a 

G 2r 



84 CATTLE. SHEEP. HORSES. 

horror of using the milk of any animal. Fowls are ndsed in great 
quantities, and fattened to an amazing size. Domestic cattle are 
scarce ; the cow is seldom bred for food, but is used^ as is also the 
bufifalo^ extensively in agriculture. Horses are small^ compactly 
built, and hardy ; they are only employed for carriage. 

The Emperor of China has at idl times in the coimtry of the 
Kalkas twenty thousand camels^ and immense herds of horses; and 
camels are furnished as tribute by the Sounites and Kalkas. These 
are kept for service in time of war, and are separated into herds> 
Each herd consists of three hundred camels, with one chief superin- 
tendant. Every six years there is an inspection. During peace^ 
the camels are employed in conveying grain from Ele and Gobdo^ 
where great quantities are cultivated by the convicts. The average 
stock of other animals in the western frontier belonging to the Em- 
peror is said to be 40,000 oxen and 180,000 sheep ; of horses 23Q 
studs, each containing 300. The good horses at four years old are 
sent to Peking ; the remainder are at the disposal of the war de- 
partment and the post conveyance. 

A farmer in China who occupies eight or ten acres of land is 
considered a large cultivator; so that the implements required for 
this garden^ as it may be called, are not numerous, nor expensive. 
The le, or plough, is made of hard wood, except the iron that de- 
fends the share, and is drawn bv a single buffalo ; and in some pro- 
vinces of China very little used, as the rice fields are too marshy 
and wet to require a plough. The harrow (pa) is to divide and 
pulverize the rice grounds, so as to reduce them almost to the con- 
sistence of jelly ; the teeth are about ten inches long. The ox or 
horse, either of Europe or China, would never be able to perform 
this laborious work, hence the buffalo is always employed. The 
hoe (cha) is made of wood, except the guard oi iron at the edge of 
the blade; this implement is the most general one in use, and 
women may be seen using it in angles and small places where the 
harrow will not reach. The spade (reo), is made of wood and iron 
like the hoe, and is chiefly used in repairing the dykes which se- 
parate the fields. The bamboo rake, for gleaning the fields, or for 
collecting manure in the streets, may be said to be the vade-mecum 
of the Chinese. The leen, or bill-hook, in spring answers for a 
pruning knife, in summer as a scythe, in harvest-time as a sickle; 
the blade is about fourteen inches long and rather thick. 

Irrigation is a matter of special attention; the water is conveyed 
by canals and conduits to the field, from the nearest stream. The 
rice is ripe in May, is cut with a reaping hook, and thrashed in 
the field by striking the sheaf against the side of a large tub ; the 
flail is sometimes in use, and it is precisely similar to that in use 
in England. It is not an uncommon thing to plant a second crop 
of rice in the same ground while the first is growing, and near ma- 
turity; hence the field when reaped has a fine green appearance. 



FABMINO IMPLEMENTS. 85 

The soil is laid under heavy contribution, but it is well manured 
and irrigated. 

The farmers make use of a sowing machine, which has a resem- 
blance to the common plough in use in Europe ; it has three hollow 
teeth, with iron supports. Above the wheels is placed a box, from 
the bottom of which the seed falls through the teeth, which are 
about nine inches in length, constantly following the motion 
of the plough in the furrows. In place of a harrow is a wooden 
roller, which covers the seed. The most singular feature about 
their agricultural implements, is their lightness; for instance, the 
plough can be conveniently carried on a man's shoulder. 
' Carts for carrying manure or produce are not absolutely required, 
except in the northern provinces, where the canals and boats are 
not numerous. Those employed by the farmers, have no spokes to 
their wheels. The instruments in use for extracting the oil from 
seeds are numerous. One made on the principle of a trip-hammer 
falls into a wooden bowl in which the seeds are placed. The same 
principle is also extended, and several hammers are elevated by a 
long cylinder, which is turned by means of a water-wheel. The 
seeds are placed in a trough, and the machine requires very little 
attention. Simplicity and cheapness are very conspicuous in all 
their arts and manufactures ; to economise time or labour, is quite 
foreign to the Chinese. 

The bridges over the canals are built of stone, some of them have 
arches that are high and beautifully constructed. Those over the 
grand canal would do credit to any nation. There is one. that is 
said to have ninety arches. To pass stationary bridges, the masts 
of the boats are so constructed as to let down at pleasure. The 
banks of the canals, seldom require facing as in Europe, as the 
boats are mostly propelled by a scull. Where the tide ascends, 
sluicegates are erected in the banks of the adjoining fields, which 
allow every tide to cover the grain, just as the farmer wishes, and 
the water can be retained or let off at pleasure. Strength and 
solidity are quite apparent in all their stone bridges ; wooden bridges 
are numerous over the rivers and canals. 

The laws which regulate agriculture, and the transfer of lands, 
&c., are the same as those laid down by Confucius. The Emperor 
is the universal owner, so that all lands are held in occupation from 
him. The occupier can be dispossessed at pleasure." The chief se- 
curity a Chinese farmer has in the possession of his land, is his 
means of cultivating it. When this is the case, a spot of land will 
descend from father t(t son, for many generations. Many farmers 
lease out a portion of their land, the rent of which is partly paid in 
kind. By far more than one half of the cultivated land in China 
is held in this manner. There is no law against mortgages, except 
land held by soldiers, which cannot be mortgaged. On applying 
for unregistered land, the applicant must prove that he possesses the 



66 silk: breeding the worm. 

means to cultivate it. There nre no fishing privileges^ nor game 
laws. The land-tax is paid in kind and in money^ and remitted in 
seasons of distress. Evading the land-tax by a false pretence is 
punished by blows and confiscation. 

Silk. — The Chinese annals date their knowlege of the silk-worm 
to B.C. 2^700. Marco Polo^ who resided in China for a considerable 
time in the thirteenth century^ states that he saw, at one peripd^ 
one thousand carriages and pack horses enter Peking laden with 
raw silk. This is not improbable^ for at the present day^ upwards 
of 800 junks are said to be sent annually to Peking from two pro* 
vinces^ Kiang-si and Che-Keang^ alone^ laden with wrought silksj 
satins^ velvets^ and costly garments^ independent of immense quan- 
tities of raw silk, conveyed from other provinces as tribute. 

The quantity produced must be large^ as it is only the super- 
abundant supply that is sent to Europe, and as it is more or 
less in use by every inhabitant who lays any claim to respectability; 
every government officer must have by him several silk over- 
dresses, (official) independent of his private wardrobe. Three or 
four silk dresses over each other is usual in winter. 

Silk is the production of the phalaena, or mulberry-moth, and 
its original locfdity appears to be China. The substance which 
the animal spins to protect itself when in the pupa state, is the 
silk, which before it is dyed, is a bright yellow color. The time 
that elapses while the worm is undergoing its changes^ varies 
according to the state of the weather, and the quantity of nourish- 
ment with which it is suppUed. The Chinese are most particular 
on this head, as on this depends the quantity of silk which the 
worm will produce. The Chinese calculate that the same number 
of insects, which would, if they had attained their full size, in twenty- 
five days, produce twenty-five ounces of silk, would only yield twenty 
ounces, if their growth occupied thirty days, and only ten ounces if 
forty days. During the first twenty-four hours of its existence, the 
Chinese feed it every half hour, or forty-eight times ; the second 
day, thirty times j and so on, reducing the meals as the worm grows* 

The place selected for their habitation, must be quite free from 
noise or disagreeable smell, the bark of a dog or the crow of a 
cock disturbs them; females attend to the worms in China; pre- 
vious to entering their chamber the woman is required to have 
washed herself thoroughly, and all her clothing ; and not to have 
eaten anything that would cause her breath to have a disagreeable 
smell, as the insects must be carefully humoured before the first 
time of casting their slough. 

When in the caterpillar state, the silk-worm changes its 
cotit four times, and previous to each moult eats nothing. When 
its nest is finished, and it has changed into the pupa state, the 
cocoons are removed from the place where the animal had formed 
them ; and after those which it is intended to keepi that they may 
perfect their changes, and lay eggs for the ensuing year, are 



ENCOUBAO£MENT OF SILK PBODUCTION. 87 

reihoved^ the remainder are put in large earth^m vessels^ and 
coyered with a warm blaiiket ; they are then exposed to a heat 
that is sufficient to destroy the life of the pupa. 

The earliest account on record^ of the introduction of the silk- 
worm into Europe was in 550 a.d. when two Nestorians returned 
£rom China with some of the eggs of the insect, concealed in the head 
of a walking-stick. And having got a knowledge of the process of 
rearing the worm, and manufacturing the silk ; they disposed of 
their secret to the Emperor Justinian^ so that the cultivation of the 
worm became general all over Greece. The quantity to be ob- 
tained from China may be very largely increased. 

The Chinese government are solicitous for the extension of the 
production of the raw material : and the following proclamation 
thereon is translated from the Chinese : — 

'^ Wan-choo-tung, commissioner of revenue of the Kiang-nan 
provinces^ hereby issues a proclamation for general information. 
'' It is well known that from ancient times until now^ agriculture 
and the cultivation of the mulberry have both been regarded as of 
the highest importance ; being not only the sources from which 
the food and clothing of the people are derived^ but the greatest 
advantages accrue to the whole empire. When the produce of 
agriculture is deficient, then that of the mulberry supplies it : thus 
in the instruction of Tsz-yushi (one of the worthies of high anti- 
quity) we read, ' let the husbandman attend to his grain, and the 
women to their cloth, and the super-abundance of the one will 
supply the deficiencies of the other.' The Kiang-soo province is 
heavily taxed, and the population is rapidly increasing. The 
extent of land remains the same ; and with droughts and inunda- 
tions, the calamities of war have caused the rich to become poor, 
while the arrears of taxes are daily accumulating. No plan can be 
better adopted than the cultivation of the mulberry. 

^^ Also, this province is contiguous to Kia-king and Eu-chau, which 
yearly reap great advantages from silk ; yet the people will not 
attend to their own interests. I can point out five great advantages 
to be derived from it. The husbandman is heavily taxed, but the 
mulberry pays no tax ; and the first great advantage is, to be free 
from the annoyance of the tax-gatherer. The tops of the walls, 
comers of ground, and along paths, will do for planting the tree ; and 
this is the second advantage. The time occupied will be only two 
months^ and this is a great contrast to the husbandman, whose toil 
is incessant, and his crops exposed to droughts, &c. ; this is the 
third advantage. Feeding the worm and preparing the cocoons is 
suited to femaJe labour, and will not interfere with the labour of 
the plough; this is the fourth great advantage. There is free 
trade at Shanghai, and the sale of silk has greatly increased; and 
not, as formerly, having to wait for the silk merchants, who sold 
it fiar away in Kwang-tung (Canton), the fruits of their labour 
will be eady repaid ; and this is the fifth great advantage. 



88 HATCHING FI8H-8PAWN. 

'' These benefits are obvious to the dullest and most ignorant ; but 
people delight to gase and look on^ and are involved in doubt^ in 
contemplating an enterprise ; but we^ more alive to the hardships 
of the times^ do not disdain or dislike^ again and again to com- 
mand and exhort you. We command all our officers to assemble 
the village gentry and elders^ and let them admonish the people^ 
and lay down the best rules, and have them published with de- 
scriptive plates. We in haste proclaim our commands to soldiers, 
and all people of the province : do not be doubtful and slothAiI> 
the exertion required is small ; let the father instruct his child, 
and the husband his wife ; then shall we see the men at the plough, 
and the females at the loom ; and no labourer will be unemployed, 
and no resources of the soil lost. The condition of the people will 
improve, and the state treasury will be full ; all will enjoy happi- 
ness that will surpass the felicity of peace. That this will be 
realized, I, the commissioner, have the most ardent expectations ; 
so let none oppose an earnest and special proclamation. 

" Taou-Kwang, 24th year, 10th month, and 80th day. 

" Shanghai, January, 1845.'* 

Orossius says, there is in China an insect which resembles the 
caterpillar, and is entirely different from the silk-worm. They 
propagate with any care, and are very numerous in the province 
of Canton. Although partial to the mulbery, they will feed on 
other trees. These insects differ from the silk-worm, as they do 
not spin their silk circularly; they produce it in filaments and long 
threads, which being carried away by the wind, are caught by the 
trees and bushes. 

The Chinese collect these threads, and make a stuff called kien- 
tcheau, which is inferior in lustre to those made of silk ; it is like 
cirugget ; and is much esteemed for its durability, and washing 
like Unen. These insects are of two kinds ; one are larger and 
blacker than European silk-worms ; the other are smaller. The 
silk of the first is (^ a reddish gray ; that of the second is blacker ; 
and the cloth made of them partakes of both these colours. 

Hatching eggs by artificial heat is well known, and extensively 
practised in Chma ; as is, also, the hatching of fish. The sale of spawn 
for this purpose forms an important branch of trade in China. 
The fishermen collect, with care, on the margin and surface of 
water all the gelatinous matters that contain spawn of fish, which 
is then placed in an egg-shell, which has been fresh emptied, through 
a small hole, which is then stopped, and the shell is placed under a 
setting fowl. In a few days, the Chinese break the shell in warm: 
water (warmed by the sun). The young fish are then kept in 
water until they are large enough to be placed in a pond. This 
plan in some measure counteracts the great destruction of spawn 
by troU-nets, which have caused the extinction of many fisheries. < 

The introduction and use of tobacco in China are evidently of 



TOBACCO. LIME* 89 

modem date^ as it is not found in the Pun-Tsaou, or Chinese 
Herbal. It is called yere (smoke)^ and is cultivated in every pro- 
vince of China ; it differs from the American materially^ as it is 
very mild. All classes use it, including boys, girls, and grown 
females. Manufactories are numerous in Canton of what is called 
paper cigars. The fibre and veins are cut out of the leaf, which is 
first moistened, and put in a screw-press. The workman has a 
large plane, with an ingeniously contrived moveable box on the top, 
to retain the tobacco as the plane cuts the leaves. An expert 
workman will make 1000 of these cigars in one day. Their average 
price is from two to five cents per hundred. 

In the neighbourhood of Canton, lime is obtained from the ani- 
mal kingdom, and fossil shells furnish ahnost the whole of what is 
used ; hundreds of boats are employed in dredging for shells in the 
shallows of the delta of the Pearl river. It is said they are thus 
procured, everywhere between the Bogue and Macao ; they would 
be found elsewhere if the people had the means of procuring them 
from the deep water. 

The mode of calcination adopted, is to mark out a circular piece 
of ground, and enclose it with a stone wall, about three feet high. 
In the centre, which is lower than the sides, a fire-place is bi^t, 
connected with the outside by a draught which is undergroimd ; a 
fly-wheel is hung at the outside at the mouth of the pipe, to supply 
the place of a bellows, and so contrived with a tredcQe that a man 
can keep up a draught with his feet. The fire-wood is then placed in 
a pyramid from over the central fire-place ; the shells are then placed 
on the wood, clean and dry; by keeping up a constant blast the 
shells are calcined in about ten hours ; when cool it is sifted and 
pounded for sale. Enquiries have been made to know if the 
Chinese are aware of the true properties of limestone, and it does 
not appear they are; certainly in the neighbourhood of Canton, they 
are ignorant of the limestone. 

Manufactures and Trades of China. — ^We are unable to 
understand fully the various branches of manufacture in China, by 
reason of our limited knowledge of the country; and all that can be 
done at present, is to collect information from every source and lay 
the foundation for future observation. With the exception of por- 
celain, silks, embroidery, and lacquered ware, there are few manufac- 
tures conducive to luxury ; but in all those branches of art neces- 
sary to the comfort of life, the Chinese have made considerable pro- 
gress. There is little or no machinery anywhere perceptible ; all is 
done by hand, even the grinding of com is chiefly by manual 
labour ; but a mill for expressing oil from seeds, moved by oxen, 
and a chain pump for conveying water from canals or ditches into 
fields for irrigation, worked by men or oxen, are everywhere ob- 
servable. 

. Porcelain is made of two different kinds of stone, the Pe-tun-tsze, 
^d Kaou-lin ; the latter of a whitish,, the former of a greenish 



90 FOBCBtAIN. FAPSB. 

caat. They are pidveiized in a m<Mrtar^ and the substance refined 
iuoid made into paste. It is then kneaded^ rolled^ and wrought into 
a solid substance^ to make the ware dose and compact. The potter 
either moulds or forms with a wheels and afterwards finishes with a 
chisel. When dried^ the ware are painted with a white mineral oil^ 
which adds to their transparency and beauty. They are finally 
painted with the requisite colours. To heighten or vary the glaz- 
ing of the pih-yew, or white oil^ it is usually mixed with oil of 
lime^ fern ashes^ and various other mineral varnishes^ according to 
the design of the potter. Mineral colours alone are sufficiently 
durable to stand the progress of burning in the oven. The fur- 
naces in use are about two fathoms high^ and four in widths with 
several holes in the top^ and are constructed of brick and china- 
ware. The greatest art consists in baking the porcelain vessels; 
for if the heat of the oven be not well tempered^ the whole set is 
destroyed^ which with all their care frequently occurs. It is an 
.article of great consumption in China^ and yields a good profit to 
the manufacturer. 

The manufacture of paper consumes large quantities of bamboo. 
The stalks are cut close to the ground and sorced; the younger the 
bamboo^ the better is the quality of the paper made of it. The 
bamboo is first placed in a reservoir of mud and water^ and re- 
mains there for two or three weeks. It is then cut in pieces and 
put in a m<»rtar, with a little water^ and pounded into pulp with 
wooden pestles. This mass, after being cleansed of the coarse parts^ 
is put into a tub of water, and additions of the bamboo are made, 
until the whole becomes a sufficient consistence to form paper* 
A workman then takes up a sheet with a mould of the proper di- 
mensions, the bottom of which is constructed of bamboo, cut in 
slips and made smooth round, like wire. The pulp is kept con- 
stantly stirred. When the sheets are taken up, they are placed on 
tables to dry. According to some who have witnessed the manu- 
facture of paper, it is said the sheets when taken up are placed on 
heated plates of iron, and sized by dipping the sheets in a solution 
of fish-glue and alum, either during or after the first process of 
making it. The sheets are made from three to four feet long and 
about two in breadth. The paper made in the northern provinces 
is whiter^ and superior in every respect ; it is said to be made of 
ootton and some portion of the mulberry tree ; the price is about 
one dollar per ream, medium size ; great quantities^are used in their 
sacrifices ; it is a large item in the inland commerce. 

In the suburbs of Peking is a village, entirely occupied by a dass 
of people who collect old scraps oi paper, no matter how dirty or 
stained. The coarse and fine are separated, and well washed on a 
stone flag near some running stream. When well washed, they 
beat them into a pulp or thin jelly ; and by means of a mould 
form them into sheets, and afterwards place them against the 



INK. PRINTING. ENOBAVINO. 91 

whitened walls surrounding their habitations^ where the sun dries 
them in a short time. 

Chinese paper-hats ore made from bamboo^ which is beaten into 
pulp^ and then mixed with a portion of some glutinous substance^ 
supposed to be i^ar-agar^ or sea-weed, the same article with 
which lanterns are made. These hats from the lightness are 
admirably adapted for the climate, and are {nreferable to straw hats, 
inasmuch as the hat is less pervious to the rays of the sun. They are 
covered with silk in the usual way, and sold for something less 
than a dollar. 

The ink universally used in China, and known in this country as 
Indian ink, is made by placing a number of wicks lighted in a res* 
sel filled with oil. A c6ver, sometibing like a bee-hive, is hung over 
the flame, on which is collected the smoke, or lamp Uack : when 
brushed oS, it is then mixed with gum and made into paste and 
formed into different shapes. There are modes of making an in« 
ferior description from the smoke of the fir timber; but it is not so 
intensely black nor so free from grittiness ; as the Chinese write 
with a brush, this ink answers all puiposes. A small portion of 
musk is blended with it, which preserves it and also gives an 
agreeable smell. 

According to the best authorities the art of printing was known 
in China upwards of 900 years ago. In the time of Confru;ius b.c. 
500, books were formed of slips of bamboo ; and about 150 years 
after Christ, paper was first made : a.u. 745, books were bound 
into leaves : a.d. 900, printing was in general use. The process of 
printing is simple. The materials consist of a graver, blocks of 
wood, and a brush, which the printers carry witii them from place 
to place. Without wheel, or wedge, or screw, a printer will l^irow 
off more than 2,600 impressions in one day. The paper (thin) 
can be bought for one fourth the price iu China that it can in any 
other country. The works of Confucius, six volumes, four hundred 
leaves, octavo, can be bought for ninepence. Far an historical 
novel, twenty volumes, one thousand five hundred leaves, half-a- 
crown is the price amongst the Chinese. 

In wood and ivory engraving, the Chinese are not behind Eu- 
ropeans ; and what would cost two or three pounds sterling in Lon- 
don, could be done in China for three or four shillings. The beauty 
and finish of their tortoisesheU, ebony, and mother of peari, is too 
well known to reqiiire description. The rapidity with which the 
Chinese cut their characters for printing is truly surprising ; when 
a book is to be printed, the characters are written on a sheet of 
paper, and transferred to a block of wood which is quite smooth, 
to which it adheres; when the paper is removed, the writing is 
found to adhere to the glutinous paste with which the block has 
been covered. The engraver then cuts all the strokes which run 
level; then the oblique, and afterwards the perpendicular ones 



02 LACQUER WARE. GLASS BLOWING. 

throughout the whole line j he then cuts the centre parts^ and thu9 
completes a block with probably one hundred characters on it^ for 
which he is paid sixpence ; this is an ordinary day's work. 

Lacquer ware perhaps is the most extensive article of Chinese 
fancy wares. After the wood is joined^ the seams and sometimes 
the whole suifisuse is covered with thin paper^ (not canvass as in 
Europe)^ which is made to adhere by the use of hogs-lard. When- 
dry this is smeared over with a paste made of clay^ which when dry 
is as hard as a stone : it is next smoothed with a pummice or whit 
stone ; the varnish is then laid on^ an operation that must be re- 
peated several times. The etchings for figures are done by throw- 
ing a fine powder upon a piece of paper, which is drilled with 
minute holes to form the outlines of the ][)icture ; and by these' 
dots, the shape of the several objects is traced. The gold is then 
applied in a powdered state with a dossil of cotton. 
. Glass'blourinff. — ^The crucible is a cylindrical hole in the side of 
a mass of masonry, heated by a fire below. It slants downwards 
and backwards, for the sake of holding the melted glass. The 
blow-pipe is about three feet long, and an inch in diameter. It 
has a bulb in the lower extremity, which forms the point of attach- 
ment for the glass. The workman inserts this into the melted 
glass, and turns it round on it own axis several times, to collect a 
certain quantity upon the end. He then takes it out, and smooths 
and rounds the ball with a spatula. This process is several time» 
repeated before sufficient has been taken up ; he then blows with 
his mouth, and subsequently takes the blow-pipe to a pair of bellows 
placed upon two beams, and applies its extremity to the tube that 
point downwards, while a third person moves the piston. 

In this way, gravity is made to accelerate the expansion of the 
glass. A pit in the floor allows room for the dilation of the beau- 
tiful spheroid that is soon formed by the action of the bellows. 
Sometimes the spheroid of six or ten feet in length is formed by 
one man with the blow-pipe, who keeps up a continued action on 
the globe of solid glass until it has obtained this great size. In 
an establishment which I visited at Canton, the glass-blower had 
the blood vessels of his face and neck so enlarged, that instant 
death will probably one day occur in the midst of his occupation. 
Two persons are employed ; one plies a fan to cool the man at the 
fiimace, the other blows the bellows to expand the glass. As char- 
coal is used, it is not deemed necessary to use the bellows or blow- 
pipe. The spheroid of thin glass is, by means of a paper model, 
marked with ink into panes, which are flattened in an oven after- 
wards j each pane of glass, when heated, being placed on a flat 
stone, and smoothed with a metal rod. These panes of glass or 
plates are intended for looking glasses, of which immense quan- 
tities are in use. The glass is very thin, but perfectly transparent. 
There are many glass establishments to be seen in and about Can« 
ton, but none of them are on an extensive scale. 



3I>ANGL£S^ MEtALLIC WAR£. 93 

Large quantities of flints are now imported into Canton^ and 
have thus almost superseded the sale of broken glass — ^once a con- 
siderable article of export to China. The Chinese will probably 
establish manufactories on a great scale. They cut and grind 
glass with great dexterity^ and in beautiful shapes. 

Spangles — as an article of ornament^ are in great demand 
among the Chinese^ and manufactured on a very simple plan. 
Copper wire is cut into lengths, and, with the aid of a pair of nip.^ 
pers^ bent into rings, which are then beaten out as our gold-beaters 
do their gold leaf. Shoes must necessarily be an article of extensive 
manufacture among so large a population who all cover their feet. 
The shoe-shops have a very attractive appearance, from the paints 
ing and embroidery with which they are finished ; and as tall ladies 
are much admired in China, the shoe-maker can hide any defect in 
this respect by making the soles one or two inches thick, which 
is about the average size. Felted paper and the buffalo leatJier are 
principally used. The leather is bad, porous, and ill-suited to any 
but an eastern climate. A good deal of inferior-tanned leather ia 
imported from Manilla. 

In the manufacture of pewter vessels, the pewter is first prepared 
in sheets, and in this state hammered into pots, vases, tea-pots, and 
every article of domestic utensil. A block of about two feet high, 
and one and a half in diameter, is sunk in the floor. Upon this 
the double pewter is moulded to the desired shape. Shops for the 
disposal and manufacture of this article are very numerous j and 
are laid out to the best advantage for display. Copper ware, such 
as jars, bottles, drinking cups, Jd every nLLary dSLstic icicle, 
is made of thin copper. They are painted various colours, and 
have a very tasteful appearance, somewhat resembling porcelain. 
Many articles for domestic use are made of a metal termed ^^ white 
copper,^^ which has the appearance of silver. 

bricks and tiles are manufactured in every part of China ; and 
the former are invariably of a peculiar blue colour. 
. Fire-proof houses are used in China. The tiles are laid on the 
rafters in rows, alternately concave and convex, forming ridges and 
furrows, luted by a cement of stiff clay. These tiles over-lap each 
other, but not so as to form two complete layers. The Chinese 
consider these roofs perfectly fire-proof. 

Stone-cutting is a very large branch of trade, particularly in the 
southern provinces. The artizans split and shape stone with great 
dexterity ; some blocks of granite for piUars which I measured, 
were thirty feet long, and split thus from the quarry as even as if 
they had been sawn timber. The grain or vein of the stone is as- 
certained, and with iron wedges along a line thus traced, the hardest 
granite is split like slate. 

The grinding mill is very simple, for it is without wheel or 
pinion. One stone is placed upon the ground, while the upper 
turns upon an axis, which passes through the centre of both. The 



94 OBINDINO MILL. CHAIN PUMF. 

•tones are about four feet in diameter. A staff is fastened to the 
edge of the stone ; from which the traces lead to the neck of the 
ox that turns it. This staff is attached bj its middle^ and is 
capable of revolving horizontallj^ to allow the ox some freedom in 
his movements. Owing to the slow movements of the stones, the 
flour is coarse. The hopper used for distributing the grain between 
the stones, is in the shape of a funnel, with a stick placed across 
the centre. This, by means of a string that confines it to the wall, 
slopes and forms a hollow cone as the hopper turns round. Down 
the sides of this funnel the wheat trickles, and finds its way 
through the centre of the upper stone to the space between it and 
the nether mill-stone. By a centrifugal force, the ground*oom is 
thrown towards the circumference, and drops from between the 
edges of the stone upon a ledge that runs roimd the nether mill- 
sUme. As many as five of their mills may be seen at work in one 
house or yard : it is said that the operation of grinding com by 
water power is in use in the interior of the country. 

A chain pump is in general use for raising water to irrigate the 
fields ; it consists of a hollow trough or trui^, of a square make. 
Flat and square pieces of wood, corresponding to the dimensions of 
the cavity of the trunk, are fixed to a chain, which turns over a 
roller or small wheel, placed at each extremity of the trunk. The 
square pieces of wood fixed to the chain move with it round the 
rollers, and lift up a quantity of water, equal to the dimensions of 
the hollow trunk. The power used in working the machine is 
applicable in three different ways : if the machine be intended to 
Ijft a great quantity of water, several sets of wooden arms are made 
to project from various parts of the lengthened axis of the roller, 
over which the chain and lifter turn. These arms are shaped 
like the letter T, and made round and smooth for the foot to 
rest on. Buffaloes and men work the pumps. 

Lanterns are in universal use in China, and the manufacture of 
them employs many thousands of men, women, and children. The 
frame is made of bamboo splinters, and woven on frames of diffe- 
rent sizes, chiefly by females. The workman then arranges all the 
interstices which are generally large, and stiffens them with glue, 
and covers the lantern with coarse paper, which becomes trans- 
parent by an application of a coat of varnish, the material c^ which' 
is found on the rocky shores of Hainan. The above are those in 
common use, and are sold at the low price of six cents. 

The lanterns used by distinguished ofScers, are made of similar 
materials, but finished in the most costly style, and emblazoned 
with their titles. Those carried by private persons have their 
names written on them. Shop-keepers use them on a large scale, 
so that at night some streets have the appearance of an illumina- 
tion. There is no article probably in which the Chinese display 
so much ingenuity ; and at the annual " Feast of Lanterns'* the 
display is very striking. They are made in the shape of various 
animals, fish, or birds. 



CANDLES. STUCCO. STOVES. 96 

The Chinese candles are not unlike the segment of a eone^ and 
are lighted at the broad end : the wick is a small stick or hollow 
reed, round which cotton thread, or the pith of a rush, is wrapped. 
One end of the reed or stick, serves for fixing on the candlestick, 
which is made with the point to enter into the hollow. The light 
produced is very bright and clear ; and as the wick is solid, and 
changes while burning into aiiard carbon, it is not easily snuffed; 
scissors made for the purpose are used. 

A substitute for stone or brick pavements is made by mixing 
sifted sand with quicklime in the proportion of 14 to 1, and tho- 
roughly working them as if making mortar; it is then spread out 
and well beaten with a broad wooden mallet, and occasionally 
sprinkled with water ; when dry it is a close and solid pavement. 
The materials for building walls is the same, only that the gravel is 
mucb coarser. In building a house the foundation is marked out 
in the usual manner, and sunk some eighteen or twenty inches; 
posts are then sunk on both inner and outer sides according to the 
required thickness ; into this casement, is poured the mortar, and 
pressed in the most solid manner, one coat over the other, until a 
sufficient height. Where bricks are scarce and dear, this mode of 
building is generally adopted. 

The Chinese stove called kang, consists of a furnace, a pipe for 
the heat, a brick stove, and two funnels for the smoke. The fur- 
nace is proportioned to the size of the stove it is intended to heat. 
The lowest part is the ash-hole; next the cellar ; then the furnace, 
having a slit or mouth, that conveys the flame and heat into the 
stove by a pipe or conductor for the heat, beginning at the mouth 
of the furnace, and forming a channel which falls in a right angle 
on a second, that goes quite through under the middle of the floor ; 
and this last pipe has vent holes here and there. 

The stove is a pavement made of bricks, which being supported 
at the four comers by solid piles, a hollow space is formed between 
them and the under pavement, where the heat remains pent-up, 
and warms the floor. The smoke funnels are at both ends of the 
stove, with a little opening on the stove, and another outward, which 
carries off the smoke. 

The heat of the furnace, impelled by the outward air, and at- 
tracted by the rarefied air of the stove, rushes through the stove by 
the vent holes, heats the bricks, and firom them the whole room. 
The smoke which has a free passage, is carried off by the funnels. 

The furnace may be placed either within or without the house; 
the middle classes have it in an adjoining room ; the rich have it 
outside the house. The furnace is in the form of a cone some^ 
what arched, that the activity of the heat and flame may be all im- 
pelled into the stove, and not fly off when the aperture at the topis 
left open. The opening in the furnace is narrow, and the lower 
end of the conductor must go quick into the stove. 

The ground or flooring of the stove iis generally composed of 
bricks placed edgewise. The Chinese cement them with a compo- 



96 PAWNDEOKERS' ESTABLISHMENTS. 

ution, consisting of varnish and vegetable oil. The chief advan- 
tage of these stoves is^ that any kind of Aiel will heat them ; seacoal 
is pounded fine and mixed with yellow clay, into the form of bricks^ 
by which plan there is a saving of coals ; and the seacoal thus 
tempered is less ofiensive. The stove is similar to those used by 
the ancient Romans. 

Paumbrokers in China. — The establishments of Pawnbrokers are 
distinct from many shops, and very numerous in China. The 
licensed shops are divided into three classes. Those who pos- 
sess large capital, and are licensed to grant loans to any amount, 
are placed under strict regulations. They allow three years 
to redeem pledges, with a grace of three months; and have to pay 
largely for their license, besides being subject to an annual tax. 
They must give three years notice of retiring from business. Infe- 
rior pawnbrokers are licensed to allow only two years to redeem, 
and others again of a still lower description may sell off their 
pledges after one year. Persons carrying on business without a 
license are liable to severe punishment. The length of time al- 
lowed by law for the redemption of pledges, proves very injurious 
to them, as the articles must often lose their value within such pro- 
tracted periods, — the only reason assigned for this anomaly is 
that such is the law. If a pawnbroker suffer from fire originating 
in his own premises, he is not exonerated from the responsibility of 
refunding to his customers the value of any article pledged and 
destroyed by fire. But when fire is commimicated to the pawn- 
broker's shop from a neighbour's, he is only to make good half the 
amount of loss. 

The Pawnbroker, according to law can demand from the first to 
the ninth month inclusive two per cent per month on sums of 
ten taels and upwards ; and three per cent per month on smaller 
sums ; but during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth months only one 
and a half per cent per month, for sums of ten taels and upwards, 
and two per cent on smaller sums. 

The establishments are frequently on a very large scale; one that 
I minutely examined at Shanghai, required an hour to go through 
the different departments ; the goods were classified, and so well 
arranged, that any pawned goods could be immediately found by a 
wooden label hanging from the end of the compact bundle, with 
the name of the person, the date of the pawn, and the amount 
for which the goods were pawned. Many of the poorer classes 
pawn their winter clothes when summer has arrived, and their 
summer ones at the beginning of winter ; their clothes are thus care- 
fully preserved, and they get the use of the money thus obtained. 

Whale Fishing in China. — ^During the months of January and 
February, whales and their young resort to the coast of China, 
especially to the leeward of Hailing Shain, in great numbers; and 
during those months they are pursued by the Chinese belonging to 
Haineu and the neighbouring islands with considerable success. 



WAGES OF LABOUR. 97 

The fish is caveteA with barnacles^ and their object in resorting to 
that coast is probably to obtain food, and to roll on the numerous 
sand banks on the coast, and clean their skin of the barnacles^ 
Besides the coast abounds with squid, cuttle, and blubber fish. 
Sixty of the whaling or fishing boats may be seen scattered over 
the bays at once. The boats are well adapted for following up 
the fish, as they may be turned round quickly, and make very Uttle 
noise. They are of difierent sizes, the smallest about three tons, the 
largest twenty five, which carry two small boats on deck, and a 
crew of twelve men. On the bow is a crooked piece of timber, 
which serves as a rest for the harpoon, and enables the harponeer 
to stretch well over the bow. 

The harpoon has only one barb ; the line is made of native hemp, 
and is about sixty fathoms long, and about five inches in circum- 
ference. Great length of line is not required by them, for there is 
shoal water along the coast for many miles to seaward. A number 
of boats start at daylight, and spread themselves in different 
directions; the first boat that sees a whale blowing, lowers the 
sails and unships the rudder, which is the signal for the other 
boats to come to their aid. They strike the fish a Uttle behind 
the blowhole, on the top of the back. With eight or ten harpoons 
in it, the whale does not Hve more than two hours, and is then 
floated to the shore ; the whales average about fifty barrels of oil. 
English whalers and Americans now fish as far north in the China 
seas as Japan, and it is said that this gigantic creature is taking 
refuge from his pursuers in the Southern Ocean by migrating 
to the Northern Pacific. I saw English whaling vessels recently 
on the coast of Siam and Cochin China, pursuing their adventurous 
calling with great success. 

In order to ascertain the wages of labour, and cost of food, the 
following answers were returned to my queries by Dr. Gutzlaff : — 

Wages of labour of the lowest description in Canton and in other 
provinces ? — 60 cash per day and food, even 40 in the north, during 
bad times. Canton much better in similar cases, 80 — 90, as far as 
400 cash, which is considered very high, and given to men that 
are weU versed in their profession. Not 20, however, in the 
north ; where I never heard of above 300 cash, even to printers, 
per day. 

Wages or earnings of weavers of cotton or silk in Canton and in 
the northern provinces ? — On an average 2 — 3 dollars per month, 
one person. 

Wages of artizans, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, 8^c., in 
Canton and other provinces ? — Five dollars per month on an ave- 
rage. I have found instances of 4 and also of 7 dollars, but not 
commonly. 

Cost of maintaining a labourer, his wife, and three children, in ac- 
cordance with his wages or earnings ? — Lowest 3 dollars. Single 
elderly persons I have myself maintained at the rate of 1 dollar per 



98 COST OF MAINTENANCE. 

month. Make for each child an allowance of 600 cash^ as the 
lowest; hardy boys will consume food to the amount of If dollar 
per month. 

Cost for maintaininff an artizan ? — Smiths^ and stone cutters^ and 
carpenters^ at 3 — 4 dollars per months in those parts per person. 

Cost for maintaininff a weaver ? — Two dollars per person. In the 
north they pay him about 80 cash^ per day^ and give him food ; 
so also to masons. 

Average cost of rice in Canton and other distriets ? — One and a 
half dollar per months 2 beginning to be high ; in the north this 
price is considered moderate. 

Average cost qf millet, wheat, or other grain in Canton, and in 
other districts ? — ^When cheap at one doUar per picnl^ often ad- 
vances 300 cash. Millet of the best description, one tael per 
picul^ generally in the north that price, here perhaps 20 per cent, 
dearer ; barley 800 cash per picul, seldom one dollar. 

Average cost of ptdse in Canton and other districts ? — The great 
pulse market is Mantchouria, where a picul in ordinary times fetches 
about one dollar, never less, often one dollar and a half. In Can* 
ton the lowest price is one tael, averaging, however, ^ dollar higher, 
without being called dear. 

Average cost of salt in Canton and other districts ? — ^Varying from 
16—20 cash : on the seacoast, where it pays no gabel, not half its 
price* In the inland districts, however, where the price is enhanced 
by transportation and extortion, it is often ten times the above 
price. In Peking it ordinarily fetches 150 — 200 cash per catty. 

Cost of oil in Canton and other districts ? — Tea oU averaging 
for 1 tael 800 — 600 cash per 28 catties ; earth-nut about 10—14 
per cent less ; mustard oil at about 2 taels ; one catty hogslard, 100 
cash here. 

What is the oil made from that is generally used as fuel or for 
food ? — ^From the fruits of the CameUa, tea oil ', for burning, from 
earth-nut : oil, very common, and most generaUy used in cooking. 
In the north, mustard oil much used ', hogslard and other substances 
exclusively for food. 

Average cost of salt or fresh fish in Canton and other distriets ? — 
Fresh. — Cheapest, 20 cash; dearest, 200; average, 60; Salt. — 
40 — ^50 cash, cheapest; 100—120, dearest; which varies accord- 
ing to the quantities caught, as well as to the peculiar situation of 
a place. The above, however, is a fair average per catty. 

Average cost of tea drank by the poorer classes in China ? — ^Thi^ee 
cash per day fdniishes to a small family a tolerable supply. The 
experiment has been made by myself. 

Prime cost of a large trading junk ready for sea^ say of 800 tons 
burthen .^*— Not under 10,000 dollars, when built in Siam ; add in 
China, SO per cent. ; at Fi:Jichoo, where timber abounds^ only GOseen 
per cent« ; more on an average at other poits^ 






BOAT MAKING AND SAILING. 99 

Baepenaesper month of tumgating a junk of 300 tons ? — ^The cost 
varies along the coast^ and fluctuates at different periods of the 
year. 

Boat making and sailing. — ^A large smuggling-boat con- 
structed at Hong-kong^ employed forty carpenters for one mouthy 
and cost with rigging 1600 dollars. These boats do not last more 
than three or four years without repairing ; their dimensions are 
about : — 

Length 70 cubits. 

Breadth amidship ... 13 ,, 

Depth of hold .... 5 

Height of the main mast. 50 

Do. mizen do. 36 

drawing water .... Sj^ 
This boat would be only a second class ; the first class would be 
seventy-eight cubits long ; a cubit is fifteen inches English. When 
fuUy maimed, the crew are as follows : first and second captains, 
sixty rowers, and ten sailors to steer and shift sails. The crews are 
residents or natives of Whampoa; and if married, their wives are 
not allowed with them, lest their presence would damp their 
courage in time of danger. One of these fast boats wilt caxry 360 
chests of opium, or 400 of Congo tea. The profits, of each voyage are 
arranged thus. Provisions, six dollars per day, or 180 dolkrs a 
month ,' the proprietor then takes half, and the remainder is divided 
among the crew; the first captain takes 100 per cent., and the second 
captain fifty per cent above all the others on board. With a calm 
sea and a fair tide the boat can go six miles an hour without using 
sails, with a good breeze ten or twelve miles at the same time. At 
night the ^'watch'^ consists of six men relieved every hour. Time is 
calculated by burning a joss stick (if they have no watch), with four 
marks at eqiial distances, A '' watch^' extends from one mark to ano*' 
ther, and is lighted at eight o'clock, so they bum two during the 
night. The last ^' watcV ends at four o'clock a.m. The armament 
is as follows: one cannon, twelve pounder; one do., six pounder; 
twelve gingalls or small rampart pieces, on pivots ; one Bnglisb 
musket; twenty pairs of double swords; thirty rattan shields; 200 
pikes ; sixty oars ; fifteen mats to cover the vessel ; two cables, one 
of them bamboo, and the other ccnr, fifty fathoms long; oaie pump 
of bamboo tubes ; one European telescope : one compass, which is 
rarely used, their voyages being near shore. The crew seldom go 
on shore. The captain has no power to strike any of the crew nor 
put a man in irons, but by common consent the distnrbets icnf put on 
shore ; no articles of agreement are entered into ; the captam: selects 
-his men, and generally advances them one or two dolbifS\ : v^ere 
is no medicine on board ; no <me is permitted to Bm6he^0|kium, 
mdess the boQ4/ is anchored in a safe place. All fatreakage and 
damage are defrayed by the owner; but damage by negligence is 

H 2 



100 SALT MANtFACTTJRBl. 

defrayed by the crew. The powder is kept in a wooden box in 
charge of the captain^ and the average quantity is a picul of 1331bs. ; 
the cartridges are made of Chinese bamboo paper^ and resemble 
silk paper; they combine. strength and fineness. 

Under a judicious policy^ our small square-rigged coasting 
vessels^ or schooners, would become extensive carriers along the 
whole coast of China^ and be a great benefit to the Chinese by 
cheapening the transit of commodities along so extensive a sea 
border. 

Salt Manufacture. — There are more people employed in the 
manufacture and conveyance of salt than in any other branch of 
trade in China. The salt in use among the Chmese is manufac- 
tured as follows: Over their salt-pans is spread a sandy earth, 
upon which they pour in an abundance of sea-water; and when it 
is entirely saturated therewith, and the water has been evaporated 
by the rays of the sun, this dried earth is chipped off to about one 
inch in depth. This is then trodden into vats, built of clay, about 
seven feet long and four feet broad, having a sieve-like bottom 
formed of canes ; sea-water is then poured on the top, and allowed 
to filter through this earth and cane-work into a reservoir beneath, 
from which a small gutter, formed of half a bamboo, leads it into 
large round pans. It is afterwards placed in earthen vessels, and 
put in charcoal fires, to skim and purify the salt. 

The amount of tonnage employed in the freight of salt must be 
immense, when we consider the enormous population among which 
it is one of the necessaries of life. The habitual use of salted fish and 
rice, renders it probable that more salt is used in China in reference 
to the population, than is consumed by the inhabitants of all Eu- 
rope. There are salt springs in the western provinces of Sze-chuen, 
and salt is manufactured there for the supply of the contiguous 
country. From time immemorial in China, salt has been a govern- 
mental monopoly; the mandarins employed in the collection of 
salt duties take the highest rank among the imperial revenue offi- 
cers; and salt merchants are, it is well known, among the most 
opulent individuals in China. The duty levied it is said amounts 
to nine dollars a ton, which with a population of 320 millions would 
produce a revenue of £18,000,000. In passing up the river Peiho, 
travellers have been surprised with the immense stacks of salt 
which lined its banks. 

Dr. Gutzlaff in his journal, says, ''the large and numerous 
stacks of salt along the shore, especially at Teen-tsin, cannot fail to 
arrest the attention of strangers ; the quantity seemed sufficient to 
supply the whole empire; it has been increasing there during 
the reigns of five emperors and is still accumulating. Assum^ 
ing that only two-thirds of the population of China consume sea 
salt, the tonnage employed would equal the whole amount of foreign 
shipping which entered all the ports of the United Kingdom, du- 
ring the year 1839, and more than eight times the tonnage of all 



EXPORT OF SALT FROM ENGLAND. 101 

vessels built there during the same period. The principal manu- 
facture of salt is on the island Hainan^ and on the coasts of the 
Canton and Fokien provinces. Mr, Lindsay in his narrative, says, 
" numerous salt-pans are to be seen in the vicinity of all towns 
along the coast, laid out in plots of fifty feet square, and paved with 
small red stones, which give them a neat appearance. 

Salt is extensively smuggled, and vended without paying the go- 
vernment duty, and many salt boats make Hong-kong their ren- 
dezvous. The Chinese code awards in the case of smuggled salt, 
the whole of it to the informer, and of all other goods only three 
tenths. The brown salt is sold in China for about twenty-seven 
shillings per ton to the wholesale dealer ; the white salt is retailed 
at three and a half dollars per picul. The prime cost of this arti- 
cle in China, where fuel is so dear, can scarcely be under one dollar 
a picul ; double this would be nearer the mark, but at the former 
rate of one dollar, the doUar and eighteen piculs to the ton, which 
is 2,600 pounds weight, such sale price (of a better article than the 
Chinese), would be about £4f a ton. The Cheshire salt manufac- 
turers may deem it worth while to consider whether they could 
export salt to China at a profit, after paying the tax to the Chinese 
government. 

In a memorial from the governor of Canton to the Emperor of 
China, loud complaint is made of the diminution in the revenue. 
The governor states that, " The condition of things is fast retro- 
grading, that salt is abundant, and no one to buy it. This (he says) 
must arise from private parties manufacturing salt, which caUs 
loudly for increased vigilance ; as the number of people employed 
under the Crown in the sale, manufacture, and transport of salt is 
not much under one million. Canton is supplied &om the districts 
of Tachow, Pomow, Teenmow, and Kanpih, and provides an exten- 
sive market and wide channel for consumption ; the price is always 
the same, but it is quite evident that the soldiers, and all those in 
authority, neglect your Majesty^s interest. It appears that the 
able-bocUed country people band together, and convey it into the 
interior.^' 

The Coal-fields of China are extensive. It is probable that coal 
was discovered, and in general use in China, long before it was 
known in Europe ; it is mentioned by travellers of the 13th and 
14th centurv, as aboimding throughout the province of Cathay, 
of which FeKinis the capital ; " black stones'' are said to have been 
" dug out of the mountains, which stones burn when kindled, and 
are used by many persons in preference to wood, of which there is 
abundance.'' 

The missionaries of subsequent dates give minute descriptions of 
the various coals supplied to Fekin, and with the aid of stoves and 
furnaces, experimented on their qualities, with reference not only 
to domestic, but for laboratory purposes. 

There are three kinds in use ; — 



102 VABIBTIE8 or COAL IN CHIKA. 

Ist. The eoal used by blacksmiths^ which yields a great flame^ 
and is fierce^ but liable to decrepitate^ which accounts probably 
for blacksmiths using it in a pounded or powdered state. 

2nd. A hard^ stony coal, used for culinary purposes, which yields 
more flame than the other sorts so employed; is less quickly con- 
sumed, and leaves a residuum of grey ashes : there are several kinds 
of this coal; the best are hard to break, of a fine grain, and of a 
deep black colour, soiling the hands less than the others, and sili- 
dous so as to give fire with steel. Others have a coarse grain, 
and make a bright fire with a reddish ash. Another species, when 
placed on the fire, faUs down in scales, closes the passage of the 
air, and stifles the fiie. 

Srd. A soft coal, gives out less heat than the second class ; con- 
sumes quickly, breaks with great ease, and is a jet black ; this de- 
scription is in most general use for mixing with coal-dust and day, 
moulded in the shape of bricks, and extensively sold in the shops 
of Pekin : it is thought economical. 

Nearly the whole of the properties and applications of coal now 
in use in Europe, have long been familiar to the. Chinese. The 
modem method of warming our dwellings, which we view as the 
result of superior and sdentific investigation, was in use with little 
deviation many centuries ago by the Chinese : there are many 
patented fuel-compounds of modem date in Europe, which have 
been in practical use in China at least a thousand years ago. 

An anthracite coal, abounding thirty leagues from Pekin, was 
not formerly in such general use as the other kinds : it is called 
by the Chinese che-tem* Che means a stone ; tan is the name they 
give to wood. Charcoal, according to their language, signifies a 
substance having the properties of stone and wood. The Chinese 
coal forms an exception to the unfavourable impression prevailing 
against all other with which we are acquainted in the East : a 
recent' high authority ranks it very favourably. In specific gravity 
it is equal to the Welsh fiiel, without its spungy texture. 

So late as 1841, a Russian traveUer describes the coal mines, 
particularly the western mountain range of China, in such abund- 
ance, as to be almost incredible : not a league can be gone over 
without meeting a stratum of coal. Mining is in a rude state in 
China, and yet coal is a moderate price in the capital. Anthradte 
may be had in the western range of mountains, twenty miles from 
Peking 

Where thick beds of coal occur, the formation is largely deve- 
loped ; some of this coal is completely decomposed, and its parti- 
cles have so little cohesion, that they are almost reduced to a state of 
powder. Beneath these coals are beds of sandstone ; and below 
those, a much richer seam of coal than the upper formation. In 
this range are seen horizontal and vertical beds of mixed coal ; it 
much resembles anthradte ; it is close and shining, rather difficult 



VABIETIES OF COAL IN CHINA. 103 

to ignite, has no flame, and yields no smoke : it is homogeneous. 
This leads to a well-grounded belief that there has been great heat 
at, or subsequent to, the period of its formation. The horizontal beds 
are only about four feet thick, of great extent, and, owing to their 
imperfect mining operations, are the most important and valuable. 
Artificers and copper-smiths prefer this coal, owing to the intense 
heat it yields. 

In parts of China, where wood is dear, coal is worked on a large 
scale for market. Mining is not understood, but in the prepara- 
tion of charcoal, the Chinese excel. 

As a substitute for coal or charcoal, coal-dust and clay,to the 
extent of nearly one-third, was selling at Canton last year at 
£1 12s. per ton. An indifferent quality gives no heat, and con- 
sumes quickly ; it is principally us^ by the poorer classes, but is 
still prepared as described by ancient travellers. 

There is no country in the world in which this combustible is 
so common. The missionaries and Russian tn^vell^ state that 
it abounds in every province of this vast empire, and along the 
banks of the Yantzekang. At Nankin may be seen amazing quan- 
tities of native coal, from which our steamers were supplied during 
the war. At the Gulf of Pe-tehe-le pure anthracite coal was seen, 
which was brought down from Pekin. Coal of a brownish colour 
exists extensively around Canton. All the coals seen south of 
Nankin closely resemble cannel coal: this description may be 
found for general sale in Shanghai. Brown coal seems confined to 
the country around Canton. Lord AmhersfsJBmbasGfy was offered 
coal for sale in all the cities it passed. Nearly all the brown coal 
Jl>eds were horizontal, and not deep. A sulphureous coal, mixed with 
slate, generally found on. sand-stone strata, prevails largely around 
Canton. There is abundant evidence, that extending over large 
areas in China, are beds of every description of coal, consisting of 
brown coal, cannel coal, and varieties of bituminous coal, all of 
which have been in use for ages, and used for all domestic 
purposes known to civilized nations, including gas-lighting; smelt- 
ing iron, copper, and other metals. 

It is rightly noted as surprising, that in China, where most of the 
practical arts have been more or less in use from time immemorial, 
and with the characteristic perseverance of that most industrious 
people, the operations of mining are conducted without any regard 
to science. At Pekin, as well as at Canton, their process is bad 
in the extreme. Machinery to lighten labour is unknown : not 
even the idea of pumps to draw off the water. The shovel, pick, 
and hammer, are the only instruments in use amongst tibie Chinese 
in their mining operations. The water is emptied by filling sacks, 
which are brought to the surface by manual labour. 

The prices of coals at Pekin averaged, in 1844, at the pit's 
mouth, four dollars sixty-three cents per ton : land carriage over 



104 OAB-LIOUTINO IN CHINA. 

mountains on camels' backs^ &c.^ enhances the price in cities to 
£2 10s. for 2^240 lbs. ; the best fuel is, therefore, expensive in 
many places. 

Le Compte says, no country can be better supplied with coal 
than China; especially mountains in the provinces of Shen-si, 
Shan-si, and Chih-le ; without this convenience there would be no 
living in so cold a country, where wood is scarce. Peking, he adds, 
has been supplied with coal, from a mountain two leagues distant 
from the city, at least two thousand years past. This coal is a jet 
black, and found between the rocks in very deep veins ; it is diffi« 
cult to light, but casts a powerful heat, and is very lasting. This 
coal yields a bad smell sometimes, which is counteracted by the 
Chinese keeping a large bowl of water in the apartment, which 
draws the smoke in such a short time that the water must be fre- 
quently changed. 

Coal of a good quality has recently been found in abundance on 
the island of Formosa, in the direct tract for steamers up the coast 
of China. 

Oas-Liohtino in China. — To what extent the Chinese pro« 
duce illuminating gas is not known ; but it appears certain, that 
for centuries spontaneous jets of gas have been burning, and turned 
to various useful purposes. Salt water is obtained by boring coal- 
beds, and the gas is forced up thirty and forty feet high : from 
these fountains the vapour is conducted through pipes to the salt 
works, and used for evaporation : along-side these are gas tubes to 
convey the gas to cities; and it is in general use in kitchens, 
bazaars, &c. : the excess is conveyed away to bum bricks and lime. 
This appUcation of gas to various purposes, is worthy of trial in 
Newcastle, Durham, and other coal districts. 

Mineral productions, — The mountainous districts of Kwei-ehoo 
and Yun-nan are rich in mineral treasures; but mining is not en. 
couraged, because it withdraws the people from agriculture, and 
the greatest riches are still hidden in the earth. There are gold 
mines, but no European can point out the place where they are to 
be found. The quantity of gold current, in bars about the value of 
dE44 sterling, is considerable ; it is issued from the capital and from 
Shan-tung province. Tibet possesses the precious metals. The 
first-rate Clunese sycee, which is the native silver of the country, 
contains some parts of gold, and surpasses in fineness and purity 
that of every other country in the world. 

Gold-dust is found in the River Yi^ng-tsze<-keang, and in several 
rivers of Yun-nan ; it is also imported into China from the Laos 
country, Birmah, and Borneo. Iron is found in every part of 
China, but great quantities are imported. Lead, though obtained 
in many places, is not sufficient for the consumption : the same may 
be said of tin. Copper is imported largely from Japan. Tuten- 
ague is an alloy of copper, iron, and zinc, of great whiteness; and 
is a composition of Chinese invention. Mercury is common ; the 



MINEBALS. — GOLD^ IBON^ MBKCVRY. 105 

osydation of vermilion is so great, principally for export, as to re- 
quire large importation from abroad. Ynn-nan furnishes the 
chrystal, ruby, amethyst, sapphire, and topaz. Alum is found in 
slates in great quantities ; as are also rock-salt, marble, porph}rry, 
and jasper ; several districts are impregnated with saltpetre. 

On another authority it is stated, that the western districts 
or provinces of Kwang-se, Yun-nan, and Kwei-chow, are 
richer in mineral productions than any other part of China. 
They possess tin, gold, silver, iron, and copper mines ; also cor- 
nelians, jasper, rubies, and beautiful marbles, in Yun-nan : gold 
and silver exist, likewise, to some extent, in Szechuen, Canton, and 
Keang-se ,* and to a smaller amount, in Hoopih and Fooh-keen. 
Iron and lead are found, more or less, in all the southern pro- 
vinces. Mercury is obtained chiefly in Sze-chuen and Kwei-chow: 
and there are a few coalmines in Kwang-tung (Canton), even inside 
the city itself. The yuh stone, or jade, is found in Shan-se and 
Hoo-nan; the cornelian, in Chih-li; there are also extensive coal 
mines in the southern portions of Chih-li and Shan-se ; and also, 
to a limited extent, in Shan-tung and Hoo-nan. 

Dr. Gutzlaff fiirnished me, in China, with the following list of 
mines : — 

Gold mines, — ^Those of Oroumtsi, and in the neighbourhood of 
the ceded western part of Turkestan, the districts of Teih-hwa and 
Suglae. 

The Chinese government does not interfere in the working of 
the mines, but appoints the most experienced as head-man, who 
pays for this privilege, monthly, three cordaneers' weight of gold. 
All the gold obtained must be regularly stamped by responsible 
shroffs, and no bars without their particular mark are allowed to 
be cii:pulated. Government sends annually considerable quantities 
of the produce falling to its share to the imperial establishment at 
Peking. The mines are very extensive, but as the advantages are 
solely accruing to the sovereign, no public account of the returns 
is ever published. 

In the mines of Teen-kwang, the stated amount of workmen is 
2,000; and allowing three times this number as being the actual 
miners, this would constitute no trifling adventure. The head- 
men pay him during the summer as well as in winter the same 
sum, for the monarch's private purse. These miners are under 
the special supervision of government, mandarins being especially 
appointed to watch over them ; and an extra tax, for defraying this 
expenditure, is also put on the ore. 

The largest quantity of gold is obtained from places in the 
neighbourhood of Kokonor, and in that country; the principal 
places to the south of the chain of mountains which abut on 
the Himmalah, are Tseenfut, Tung-sha, Tsaon-tun, Ele^p-kan, 
Ke^p-sik, Ookpok-pachen, Poolakik-chang, andChang-tsze; to the 
north are Folotae, Tsing-tun, Keep-too, Yaon-tsze, Kokoshashik, 



106 GOLD AND SILVER MINES. 

Yintun-heln^ and Tsenen-tsze. The gold is here founds both iir 
the bowels of the earth as well as in the sand of rivers. These 
mines are only worked dnring the summer months^ but no statement 
of the average production exists. 

In Shen-se are the Hoppootat and the Haehopla Mountains, 
containing rich ore ; and every gang of fifty men pays two mace 
five candareens in weight per day^ besides a premium of three cor- 
doneers on each tael^ to the officers of government. 

In the province of Yun-nan, there are many places^ and, 
perhaps, the largest establishments in the world, for washing 
the sand of the Yang-tsze, which here assumes the name of Gold- 
dust River, For every bed (a space confined between boards where 
the washing is carried on,) the owner pays, monthly, one mace 
weight in gold ; and, annually, seven taels, two mace, six canda- 
reens besides. At other places the tax is much heavier, a clear 
proof of the sand being more productive ; the principal places are 
Yungpik, Hok-king, Pik-ya-pootsaon, Kaehwa, and Makoo. 

The richest mines, however, are in Kwei-choo Province, Sze-nan- 
foo, and Teen-king, where the miners pay on each tael pure gold, 
four candareens and three mace to government. 

Oold-duBt abounds in Assam, which adjoins Yunnan. 

Silver mines. — Sze-chuen province has at Yenynen, Kea-tsze, 
Kwapeavatze, Kowke^n-chang, Chinshakow, Ningfbnying, and at 
Sekoope^t, copper mines which yield a good deal of silver, paying 
a duty of two mace, four candareens, and five cash for each tael. 

In Canton Province, there are lead-mines producing considerable 
quantities of silver, at Tsangchelin, and Taewan ; in Chinping dis- 
trict, at Sinshaw; in Tung-shun district, at Tungkeo-p^n and 
Leshoowan ; in Taepoo district, at Taetsing and Taho-ping. The 
mines being very productive, the labourers pay five mace and one 
cordoneer on each tael of silver. 

The following are the pure silver-mines : in Kwang-se, at Nang- 
tang ; in Hoche country, at Kwa-hung ; and in Funho district, at 
Tseavumuh-shan : the duty varies here from one-and-a-half mace 
to two mace upon each tael of refined silver. The officers superin- 
tending the work are made responsible for the pajrment of a fixed 
sum, not mentioned in the statistics ; and failing to collect it, must 
themselves make up the deficiency. 

In Yun-nan there are the following pure silver-mines : at Sha- 
heen, in Tang-chuen country, where the contractor has to pay 
1,802 taels per annum, and may extract as much as he can ; at 
Pootsaoutang, in Hok-king district, the contractor pays 421 taels 
per annum; in Kaehwafoo, at Matsoote, 706 taels; at Kooheo, on 
the frontiers of Birmah and Cochin China, annually paid in duties, 
668 taels ; in Gan-nan country, at Tookikla, 60 taels ; at Tsoo- 
heung^ in the Yung-ching mines, 8,875 taels; at Malung, 698 
taels. The Kookew mines in Mungsze district, and the extensive 
silver-mines of Weseatuntsze and Pokeihtsze, on the Cochin China 



THE OOYERNMENT OF CHINA. 107 

frontiers (amount of duties paying to goyemment not mentioned) ; 
at Muhhih^ in Keenshway cQstrict^ and the Einsha and Loma 
mines^ in Chaontung-foo^ and those at Santaoukow, are under the 
immediate superintendence of the Chinese government^ and pay 
one mace eight cordoneers duty per tael; under the same juris- 
diction are the Shih-yang^ the Chowcha^ and TseenlieUj the Mang- 
leen, and the Muhyew mines; the former pay 1—2 cordoneers 
per tael^ the last^ 300 taels per annum. At the Kinsha copper- 
mines there is also silver ore foimd. In the neighbourhood are 
the Teentsae^ Ka^tae^ Yufimg^ and Yuenlung mines. At Lelung- 
foo are the Hwuy-lung mines^ which pay one mace three cordo- 
neers per ta^. In Shunning-foo, there ire several mines paying 
annually 800 taels to government : others are not enumerated in 
this list because thejr are met with very frequently, and being 
under far less restramt than those in other provinces, are worked 
by myriads of human beings. 

The richest mines, however, are in Kwei-choo province, at Wei- 
ning country, in Chatsze, ^ and Chookwangtang, which pay four 
mace per tael duty. 

At the two Lokma and Hwuylung mines, a deputy pays, an- 
nually, from 8,000 to 25,000 taek ; this sum, however, is sent to 
the Board of Bevenue. Officers who distinguish themselves in 
collecting sums from mines are rewarded by being raised in rank. 

When we take into consideration, that at least ten times the 
number of^ mines are worked clandestinely, or under the conni- 
vance of the government officers, and, moreover, by the aborigines 
who are in possession of the mountains, it will be apparent at a 
single glance, that the precious metals gained from the bowels of 
the earth, far exceed in quantity the amount of the exported 
bullion. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA,— GENEaAL,—PROVIN. 

GIAL, AND LOCAL. 

Our knowledge of the mode in which one third of mankind 
is governed in China has hitherto been very limited ; it has, there- 
fore, seemed advisable to collect in one view all the information 
which may tend to illustrate this singular problem. So far as I have 
been enabled to trace, it appears that while complete despotism 
is exercised generally, there is considerable local freedom, the 
remnant of the ancient Ghinese institutions, which the Tartars 



108 GOVERNMENT. — ^IMPERIAL FAMILY. 

have not been enabled entirely to crush^ although they have buc* 
oeeded in debasing the people. 

According to the doctrine artfully inculcated throughout China^ 
the monarch is responsible to no one on earth ; by the ruling pow- 
ers of earth and heaven he is emperor of Chma^ representative of 
all living beings^ and of mankind especially. 

He is supposed to transact all business between man and the su- 
perior beings. 

As the high-priest he worships the presiding powers^ and prays 
for all men. He has been called a political heathen pontiff^ 
vested with temporal and spiritual power; his Majesty even rules 
over Hades^ canonizes^ and can condemn and degrade^ as well as 
exalt and confer honors on an idiot. 

He stands as an inferior compared to his ancestors ; if dead he 
follows their example; and provides them with paper money burnt 
over their tombs, in order that they may purchase necessaries ; if 
alive he venerates them with the same respect as if they were su- 
perior beings ; as a proof, the empress mother made Taoukwang 
renew the late war with the English, after the conclusion of peace 
between Commissioner Keshen and Captain Elliott; she put a stop to 
festivities, and ordered mourning throughout the empire, which 
actually took place. 

The emperor nominates his successor. The present emperor was 
not the eldest son of his father. 

Imperial Family, — The Emperor of China signs his name 
Taoukwang, '' Reason's Glory,'' and is the second son of the late 
emperor Keaking; he was bom in 1781; and succeeded to the 
thn>ne in 1821. His eldest son died in 1832; but he has three 
other sons living. Since his accession to the throne, there has been 
very little internal peace ; not one year has passed, but one part or 
the other of the empire has been disturbed by insurgents, and 
the wide-spread influence of the numerous secret soceities that 
exist throughput the empire, are a continual source of uneasiness. 

The first on the list of the imperial officers is Tsungjunfii, whose 
duties consist in regulating and providing for the imperial clan 
who are very numerous, and divided into two classes ; first, the 
imperial house, (tsungshi); second, the golden tribe, (Ghioro), 
the latter being the surname of the reigning family. The descen- 
dants in a direct line of the first sovereign, who took the name of 
emperor, are styled of the imperial house ; the remainder of the 
family are merely called after their surname, Ghioro. Members 
of these two classes are frequently expelled for impropriety of con- 
duct, but are nevertheless distinguished by wearing coloured 
girdles, one red and the other pink. There are many nominal dis* 
tinctions of titles among the imperial family, but their names 
rarely appear in any elevated station of official employment. The 
members who manage the affairs of this office, have adopted a 
different Une of poUcy, from that which was hitherto in practicej 



GENERAL GOVERNMENT OP CHINA. 109 

Rnd the consequence is that domestic strife is unknown. There 
are many of the imperial kindred whose allowance from the emperor 
does not exceed one pound sterling, per month ; the consequence 
is that they have no influence whatever oveip the public, with 
whom many of them are compelled to associate in the capacity of 
shopmen and servants. 

The general Government may be said to consist of two 
councils, six supreme boards^ a censprate^ a colonial office^ and an 
imperial college. 

The inner council {Nui Ko) is the emperor's office of business, 
from which all his commands are issued. There are four chief 
ministers, (ta hiasz), and two assistant ministers, (hiessan ta hiasz), 
also ten ministers, (hiasz). Their united duties are to deliberate 
on the affairs of the state ; to declare the imperial will, and to aid 
the sovereign in governing the people. From the latter ten 
ministers, (hiasz) are selected the governors of provinces, political 
agents in the colonies, &c. ; six of them are Mantchoo Tartars, 
and four Chinese. The ordinary business of the Council, Nui Ko, 
is the reception of imperial edicts, and the presentation of memo- 
rials, and the replies which are to be given. These documents are 
all transmitted from the General Council Chamber, (Keun-kee- 
Choo) for the perusal and examination of the members, previous 
to their submitting the same to his Majesty ; to all these documents 
are attached a slip of paper, with the opinion of the council as to 
the answer that should be returned written on it, to economize 
time. The day following the reception of each memorial, the 
council all attend on his Majesty at daylight in the morning. 
A Mantchoo minister reads each document, and then hands it over 
to a Chinese minister, who inscribes on it the imperial answer. 
The other duties of this council, are the care and preservation of 
the imperial seals, twenty five in number ; they also arrange what 
posthumous titles are to be conferred on deceased emperors and 
their consorts, also on meritorious ministers and nobles. 

The General Council, fKeun-ke-Choo,^ is chiefly composed of 
members chosen from among the ta heasze of the inner council, 
the presidents, and vice presidents of the six boards, and the prin- 
cipal officers of all the other courts in the city. All important 
business that requires immediate attention is transacted by this 
council, who sit daily from two until four o^clock. They attend 
his Majesty when he holds a council of state ; on which occasion 
they are permitted to sit on low cushions, which are placed on the 
ground. The commands and decisions of the Emperor are written 
down and transmitted to the NuUKo to be made public ; if the 
decisions are of a secret nature, and relate to the provincial 
affairs, they are sent to the board of war, who have them dis- 
patched at the rate of 400 or 500 le a day. In all matters con- 
cerning the government, and the decision of trials of importance, 
the members of this council are engaged alone, or deliberate with 



110 SIX SUFBEME BOARDS. 

the board or court to which the aflTair more properly belongs. 
The Emperor^ in time of war or rebellion^ looks to this council for 
local information^ and the state of the country through which the 
soldiers have to pass. This council is bound to furnish his 
Majesty with a list of all the meritorious officers, entitled to pro- 
motion. They keep the map of the dependencies, and countries 
inhabited by barbarians; have the appointment and removal of the 
Mantchow and Chinese residents in Tibet, Turkestan, &c. ; select 
the presents to be given to tribute-bearers ; regulate the examina- 
tions at the court, and translate documents into and fix)m foreign 
languages. Thirty clerks, called changking, are attached to this 
departmenti 

The six supreme boards, (luh-hoo), are the boards of: 1, civil 
office j 2, of revenue and territorial resources ; 8, of ritual obser- 
vances; 4, of war; 5, of punishments ; and 6, public works. At 
the head of each board are two presidents (ahangahoo), and four 
vice-presidents (aheUmg)^ who are either Mantchoo Tartars, Mon- 
gols, or Chinese. The chief ministers of the Nuuko, are often ap- 
pointed superintendents over the presidents of one or other of the 
boards. The boards over which such superintendents are most 
generally appointed are those of war, of revenue, and of punish- 
ments ; sometimes a president of one board is placed as superin- 
tendent of another. Each board has a subordinate department, 
for attending to particular portions of the peculiar business of the 
board. 

The board of civil office assists his majesty in his judgments, re- 
garding the promotion and degradation of officers ; confers ranks of 
nobility, and manages a great part of the machinery of the govern- 
ment. This board has in its gift, subject to his majesty's appro- 
val, all the civil appointments, from the governor of a province to a 
police runner, the total of which amounts to many thousands. 
There are four subordinate departments attached to the civil office ; 
the duties of which are to take cognizance of the conduct of all the 
civil officers in the empire, to keep a strict account of all their good 
and bad actions, to regulate their temporary retirement from duty, 
their promotion or their degradation. 

The board of revenue, {HoO'poo)^ levies duties and taxes, arranges 
the distribution of salaries and allowances, the receipt and expen- 
diture of grain and treasure. It regulates the territory of the em- 
pire, in its divisions into provinces, compiles correct censuses of all 
the people in their various distinctions of classes, obtains admea- 
surenaeoits of all the lands in the empire, ascertains the positions of 
plaoe8> by their latitude and longitude, proportions the taxes «nd 
conspriptions, and regulates the expenditure of the empire. At*- 
tached to it are fourteen subordinate departments, who are charged 
with the supervision of the revenue of the several provinces. A 
board or court of appeal is connected with the Hoo-poo, which re- 
gulates disputes respecting property and successions ; also a mint 



OlfFICIAL DUTIES OF THE BOARDS. Ill 

•imder the direction of two of the she-lang, or vice-presidents of 
the boards and of two other superintendents^ subordinate to them ; 
an officer of " the great ministers of the three treasuries/* viz : the 
treasuries of metals^ of silks^ and of the material of colorings toge- 
ther with stationary, &c. ; an officer for superintending the sup- 
plies of grain in and about the capital, under the direction of two 
officers (shelang), and thirty-two superintendents. 

The board of rites [Le-poo), superintends the classes of ritual ob- 
servances : 1st, those of a propitious nature, viz : festivals, sacrifices 
to the gods, and state ceremonies ; 2nd, those of a felicitious or 
joyfdl nature, &c. ; 3rd, those of a military character, preparations 
for war, reviews of troops, &c. ; and 4th, those of hospitality, and 
everything relating to the intercourse of foreign states, aad the pre- 
sentation of tribute from abroad and the provinces. 

There are four subordinate departments, besides several officers 
for conducting the general business of the board of rites, the chief 
duties of which are to regulate the etiquette and ceremony to be 
observed between the various ranks, and the degree of attention 
which is to be paid to each other, when meeting in official capaci- 
ties; to attend to the governmental schools and academies; and 
•the public literary examinations. This department has the whole 
charge of foreign embassies — attached to it is an interpreter's office. 
The board grants permission to foreign astronomers, mathematici- 
ans, and artists to reside in Peking. The fourth department of the 
board has the superintendence of the imperial feasts, and the al- 
lowances given to princes and other lords in waiting on the royal 
family. 

The board of music, {Yo-poo), is an office connected with the 
Le-poo, and is under the superintendence of the Mantchoo presi- 
dent of that board, and an indefinite nxunber of high officers who 
possess musical talents. 

The board of war, {Ping^poo), has for its general duties the presen- 
tations of military officers to the Emperor, and the distribution of 
military commands throughout the empire. The minor duties of 
the board are managed by four subordinate departments. 

7%e board of punishments, {Hinff-poo), hears causes and ap- 
peals, confirms or reverses sentences, and regulates fines. In cases 
of capital crimes, with a few exceptions, the officers of this board 
meet with two other criminal courts and deliberate together; and 
at the time of the autumnal assizes, they meet the officers of eight 
other courts, to reconsider the sentences passed by the varitms pro- 
vincial judges. This board marks all changes made in the Ihritten 
law8> and the supplementary enactments, and prepares all new edi- 
tions c^ l^e penal code fDr publication, regulates prisons, and has 
attached to it a treasury, which is supplied by fines on jidlors and 
others. 

The board ofieorks, (Kung^oo), regulates the erection and repairs 
-of all buildings for the use of the public, and the manufacture of all 



112 FCniBfON AND COIOKTAL OmOBfilr 

kinds tsf t«ei6lB, instnune&tSi dvesses, and imperial mansolenms ; 
also the regulation of weights and meavnres. 

The subordinate d^atrtments are four : tiie first has charge of all 
city walls^ palaces^ temples and altarSi and estimates the value of 
all buildings confiscated to government *, four soperintendents ^ 
timber and two of glass*-ware and pottery are appointed. The 
second attends to the manufacture of military weapons^ gnns^ shot, 
&c., and has charge of the imperial pearl-fisheries. The third depart- 
ment has charge of all water-ways, dikes, &c. The 4th has the 
furnishing of all the palaces and temples, and the erection of tombs. 

ne mini is under the direction of two Tiee-piesidents (shelang) 
of the board of works, with two superintend^itB, eubordinate to 
them. 

The manufacture of gunpowder is under the chftrge of '* two 
great ministers/^ with one subordinate superiuttadent. 

Lefmi^yuen is intrusted with the management of the Mongols, 
and the govt^*nment of Turkestan and T^bet, and is composed en- 
tirely of Montchoos and Mongols. The board is also entrusted 
with the government of the tributary tribes in Szechuen, Formosa, 
and other places ; these are called fan, foreigners, to distinguish 
them from the " barbarians'' (all western people). These " bar- 
barians'' are divided into two classes, external Md internal; the 
latter includes all the unsubdued mountadneevs-, called Meaou-tze, 
who dwell on the borders of Kwang-tung, Kwang^^se, Kweichoo, 
and other provinces ; this office regulates the government of the 
Nomads; The multifarious duties of the colonial office are pretty 
equally divided among six subordinate departments. 

The 1st has charge of the territorial limitations, and regulates the 
rank and succession of the princes and nobles of the inner Mongo- 
lian tribes; it arranges the marriage of the princes, and their sons 
and daughters, these being generally inter-manded with the impe- 
rial family; has charge of arranging the tribes into corps, and 
administering to them the oath of fesdty. The 2nd regulates the 
salaries of the inner Mongolian princes, and their visits to the court, 
which take place in regular succession. The 8rd department 
exercises the same control over the outer Mongolian princes and 
nobles; and over the lamas of Tibet, exercises the same restraint, as 
the first department does over the inner Mongolians ; fixes the 
limits of the territories of each tribe, supervises their government, 
issues a license to their merchants without which they cannot 
trade. At Kourun, the principal city of the Kalkas, are resident 
two ministers, Keepers of the Russian frontier; they have an office^ 
at Kiachta, where the intercoiu'se between Russia and China is re^ 
gulated. The chief resident of the lamas is in Tibet; here two po- 
litical aigents reside, connected with this d^artment, who sit in 
council with the dalai lama and the bantchinerdeni. ''The tribute 
of Tibet and the 6orkas,"is under thedirection of this department. 
The 4th fixes the emoluments, tribute, &c., of the outer Mon« 



EXAMIHIN6 COtr&T^ OR CENSORATE. 113 

golians And the lamas. The 5th taranges the goTemment of the 
Mohskmrnedan prinees and Begs^ also those tributary nnsubdued 
tribes of Fouroaths^ Kassaks^ and Turkomans^ of Khokand^ Bad- 
akshan^ Belaof^ Tashkend^ and Aakhan^ in independent Tsirtary. 
The 6th regulates the penal discipline of all the tributary tribes ; 
has attached to it a translator's office^ a treasury^ and an ofGlce of 
supervision. 

The Es^amining Court, or Gemorate, investigates into the character 
and conduct of all the public ofGlcers in the empire. When any 
important affairs of government are submitted to the consideration 
of the six boards^ the censorate is one ; and in all important cri- 
minal cases this board is consulted. The members of this court are, 
two chief censors^ and fom* deputy censors ; these are called censors 
of the left; the governors of provinces are ex-offido censors of the 
right; and the lieutenant-governors, with the governors of the 
rivers, are ex-offieio deputy censors, also, of the right. The mem- 
beiti of this court, when in the presence of his majesty, give expres- 
sion to their sentiments very freely. They are required to point 
out to the emperor his faults, and the law makes them responsible 
for every bad action he commits without a remonstrance on their 
part. 

The present ^oiperor differs from his predecessors, inasmuch as 
he has frequently commtoded them for their homely truths ; but 
under former reigns, particularly during that of Keenlimg, many 
censors were ordered for execution for only performing their duty. 
This anomaly in government was very objectionable to the Tartars, 
who had no idea of any restraint on their despotic sway. 

In July, 1843, one of the imperial censors addressed a strong 
rebuke to the emperor, which shows the bold free language now 
used, and at the same time the hatred of the English. He says : — 

'* That which the people love is good, that which they hate is bad. 
Do they not love truth and virtue — and do they not hate iniquity 
and falsehood ? If, then^ you (the emperor) reward not the rights 
eous and punish not the evil-doer, verily it will become a sore sick- 
neai to the land. 

'^ When the disobedient barbarians (the English), like foul birds 
and unclean beasts, wrought strife in the land, did not civil and 
military authorities and their men flee away. Many reasons were 
given for this disgraceful conduct ; but although their ships were 
strong and their cannon great, yet are not the laws of the emperor 
stronger and his wrath greater. How much better to risk life in 
battle than death in flight. Although the barbarians returned to 
their own country, yet the emperc^ was so justly incensed at his 
officers, for having violated the law, by fleeing from the barbarians, 
that he commanded their conduct to be investigated. The said 
officers were disgraced, degraded, and condemned to death; among 
thetn was Yu-poo-yuen, who was executed ; none were to be found 
who did not clap their hands and rejoice at his punishment. Great 



1X4 COURT OP HEPREBENTATION. 

w vu hia crime, how much greater vere the Crimea of Ke-ahenj 
Ki-img, 'Woo-wee, and others, who have not received like punish-, 
meat. 

"Siirely the heRrts of people are sorry, and men ay out, that is 
by reason of ttieir being Tartars, and not Chinese like Vu-poo-yuen. 
" The censor implores the emperor to listen to the pet^les' 
prayers, and to degrade Ee-shen to the lowest ranlc, never again to 
be employed in a service he has betrayed, — then will the people's 
hearts be glad ; and true it is that they hate Ke-shen, and would- 
tear him in pieces for selling them to the barbarians. 

" The secret of rightly governing, is to know when and how to 
reward, when and how to punish." 

The subordinate departments of the censorate are, the luh-ko, six 
classes, the censors of the fifteen taou or proyipceHi and the censors 
of ihefive divisions of Pekin. The six cUssee are named after the 

1 " ch having to attend to the Buperyiskion of the board 

is named. The censors of the fi^en taou attend to 
n of all the courts of the capital, tl^e ^chives, Sec, and 
1 eases in the provinces. 

pj[ Repreiaitation (Tuna-chingJ, con^tg of two chief 
eputieSj and two counsdlors; their duties are to receive 
and i^peals from the provinces, a^dres^d to the em- 

j,„._.. li' the eighth court for aiding has majesty- Some of 

the depiiti^jaf this court attend at the p^ace^ates, wlierea drum 
is plficed'j those who have appeals to present, peat this drum and 
are ijntnetli'ately waited on, 

TAe Cnminal Court and Court qf Appeal (called Tale-sze) is the 
ninth court which consults on all matters relating to government, 
and one of the three courts (supreme) of jodic^ure. These three 
courts must be unanimous in their decision on all capital crimes 
brought under their consideration; if otherwise, the case is then 
submitted to the emperor, who decides. This board is frequently 
divided into two subordinate courts, the heads of which preside in 
assemblies of the subordinate departments of the board of punish- 
ments, each of the two courts being joined with half the whole 
Qumher of the departments of the board. The oMcers for con- 
ducting the business are nearly the same na those . of the ux 
board^'., 

Tft(. Tmperial Academjf (ifa«/ra-yMe«). — The chief officers are 
two presidents, who attend upon the emperor. Twioe in each yaar 
they give ii\ lists of officers, from which the etnperor seleots 
" spcu^ers^" whose duty is to translate es^ya.whicn have been 
wntten'W his majesty, aod read them aloud in his preseaee. 
Twenty-two members of this academy are (deoted to attead bis 
majesty on public occasions, to record his words nn^l speeches ; 
four take , this duty in turn. Attached to . the .Academy, is the 
bistopographer's school, for preparing memQirS: fuad ,iiatioD«Ji his- 
tories. ' The imperial family is uso instructed hy this board. 
The Emperor of China consult? his ministers on various sub- 



IMPEBIAL KULB AND CKCELTT. 115 

je<?fe. The present sovereign recently promulgated the foUowiQg 
queries : — 

" 1st. What is the practice of economy according to the Eoaxims 
of the ancieat kings ? 

" 2nd. What signifies the grandeur of the universe ? 

" 3rd. Is it requisite first to rectify peoples' hearts, and then to 
improve their manners ? 

" 4th. Do rites (religious ceremonies) put a stop to lawsuits and 
to altercation ? 

" 5th. Is it not necessary to place the war establishment upon a 
proper footing, with a view to maintaining civil order? And must 
not some leading characters be chosen to carry this object into 
effect?" 

Although there appear to be checks on imperial rule or cruelty, 
the emperor is absolute iu cases of life or deat 
sovereign did not hesitate to violate the pr 
granted by his officers. Jehangir, the leader i 
rebellion, surrendered himself to Chang-liug, 
Chinese forces, and, relying on his promises, n 

An extract from the Peking Gazette of th 
reliance to he placed on the promises of genei 
emperor, in thus recording the sentiments of 'i.ui/iin.niu^g. . ±uia 
day I have descended to the gate, and received the prisoi^CT j T am 
filled witii consolation and profound awe." The following day, 
the great ministers of state and the military council assembled to 
try the prisoner, the emperor presiding on the occasion. . He was 
found guilty, and sentenced to a slow death, and his head to be ex- 
posed to public gaze. The proclamation said : " Let the sons of 
the officers who fought against him, and the assistant ministers of 
state, the president of the boards, and the imperial attendants, go 
and witness the execution, Onr hair stands on end to think of 
his killing our great officers. Let the rebel's heart be torn out, 
and given to the sons of those officers, to sacrifice at the tombs of 
thdr fathers to console their faithful spirits." A subsequent 
gazette announced the execution to have taken place. 

77ie Empress of China. — The imperial harem is supplied chiefly 
with the daugbtera of noblemen and grandees. They are entrusted 
to the care of elderly matrons and eunuchs, who care&illy train 
them in the duties according to the prescribed order. When a 
selection is In be made for a consort, the birth and connexions of 
the individual is taken into consideration : but no Chinese tady can 
Ofcend the tkroTie, nor can her children be considered legitimate. 
The lady made empress ia entrusted with the entire government of 
the harem, and tJie same homage that is paid to the einperpr must 
likewise be bestowed upon her by the women. 

The empress is supposed to represent the earth, and, ' conse- 

qnently, posBCsSes" the power of exerting a trausforming influence. 

She \s charged with the homage due to the god of the stlk-wormj 

i3 



116 THE EMPRESS OF CHINA. 

mid has for the encouragemeut of her sen to rear this insect. Her 
ladies of the bedchamber are employed in weaving silks^ which are 
annually brought as ofiEerings to the gods. 

The Chinese constitution prohibits an empress from interfering 
in affairs of state ; so that when a regency has managed affairs^ 
and a female has been concerned in it^ great dissatisfaction has 
been manifested by the grandees. 

The interior palace resembles a garrisoned city; no one is per- 
mitted to enter without the permission of the emperor. There 
are very few male servants permitted; female domestics and eunuchs 
perform the duties of the palace. 

The Local Government of Peking is intrusted to a minister of one 
of the six boards^ and subordinate to him is a fooyuin^ or mayor. 
They have charge of the four divisions of the metropolis ; and have 
under them two (been) magistrates ; each been district comprises 
about one half of the city. They are only subordinate to the em- 
peror^ to whom they carry all difficult cases. They have control 
over the military police of the city. The board of punishments, 
deUvers over to them all subjects sentenced to transportation. 

The Taepuh is under the direction of two presidents (king), and 
two d^uties^; their dutv is to superintend the rearing of horses, 
and training them for military purposes. Two large tracts of land, 
lying beyond the Great Wall, are appropriated for this purpose. 

The national college, gives instruction in general language, 
classics of Confucius, and mathematics ; in each department there 
are separate teachers. The heads of this college are chosen from 
among the ministers of the councils, two principals, and three pro- 
fessors, a Mantchoo, a Chinese, and a Mongol. The Russians and 
Lewchewens are instructed in Chinese, Mantchoo, and Mongol 
literature. 

The Imperial Astronomical College is under the direction of several 
ministers, and two principals, and four assistants, a Mantchoo, a 
Chinese, and (formerly) two Europeans. Their chief labors consist 
in preparing an annual almanac, and the selection of lucky days 
and hours, for public acts, sacrifices, and interments. Geometry 
and trigonometry, are partially attended to. The geographical 
positions of places are determined by members of this college. 

The Grand Medical Hall, is regulated by a president and two de- 
puties; their duties consist in directing the cure of the nine 
diseases. 1st, those affecting the pulse violently ; 2nd, those affect'* 
ing it a little ; 3rd, diseases arising from cold ; 4th, female diseases ; 
5th, cutaneous diseases; 6th, those requiring bleeding; 7th, 
diseases of the eyes; 8th, diseases of the mouth; 9th, diseases of 
the bones.. In rotation the members attend on the Emperor and 
houBehold. No theoretical instruction is imparted, all knowledge 
is acquired by practice. The members are divided into four grades. 

The Nuy-woo-foo, is imder an indefinite number of great minis- 
ters. All affairs, whether civil, financial, military, ritual^ or penal. 



LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF PEKING. 117 

conneeted with the imperial household^ are conducted by this board. 
One member must be in attendance on any of the ladies of the 
harem^ when going from^ or returning to the palace. The house- 
holds of all the married sons or daughters of the emperor^ are 
placed under the charge of this board. One of the subordinate 
departments has a treasury and five depositories ; yiz.^ of tea^ gin- 
sing^ skins^ silksj and dresses; these depositories supply the pre- 
sents given by the Emperor^ and employ all artizans required for 
the use of the palace; the revenue from the imperial farms is 
paid into this office. There is a weaving and dying establishment^ 
under one minister and eight deputies. The fourth subordinate 
department selects the ladies for the harem^ collects the revenues 
arising from the 900 imperial farfiis occupied by Mantchoos of the 
three banners. 

The She-wei-choo, or Court of the body-guards. Six great minis- 
ters have the government of the body-guards and personal troops 
of the three banners^ all Mantchoos or Mongols^ who are divided 
into classes. Connected with this office are several classes of great 
ministers^ with great officers at their head. These are called the 
inner great ministers ; the mixed assembly of great ministers have 
no particular duties assigned them. 

The tootungs of the eight banners, at the conquest of China, in 
1644, (the invading force,) were composed of natives of Mongolia, 
Mantchouria, and China, These were divided into eight corps, 
each with separate coloured banners, and &om that time have 
formed the defence of the Mantchoo dominion. Three of those 
banners are called superior, and five inferior. A small portion is 
occasionally sent to the provinces, but the majority are always in 
garrison, either in Peking or in Moukden. The Mantchoo and 
Mongol race in these corps is rigorously maintained, but the Chinese 
portions are permitted to retire and attend to other callings. 

All the small military bodies in the capital are attached to the 
eight banners ; 1st, the vanguard, picked from the Mantchoo and 
Mongol troops, under eight commanders ; a body of infantry, or 
armed police, under a commander and two lieutenant-generals ; a 
body of artillery, under Mantchoo and Mongol commanders ; a 
body of scalers, under the same command; a troop of pioneers ; 
do. of lancers ; do. of falconers ; wrestlers, and archers, complete 
the local government of Peking. 

A military power in China would destroy the civil authority ; a 
lawless force would soon subdue a weak and corrupt government ; 
hence the literary are placed above the military, although a stand- 
ing army has existed in China for centuries. 

The land force of China, according to Timkowsky, consists of 
four divisions, corresponding with the number of nations which 
compose the Empire. The division consisting of Mantchoos holds 
the first rank^ and comprises 678 companies of 100 each = 67,800 
men. The second is composed of Mongols, and is formed into 



118 MILITARY FORCE OF CHI!9A. ' 

211 ccntipAteies, ^ 31,000 men. The third coaiBitfts of 870 com* 
paaieai^ tu 97,000 men. Tlias the Mantchoo army forms a total 
of 116,000 men : the greater part cavah^y. The fourth division is 
composed of Native Chinese annnaDy recruited. It is called the 
green ihi^, and nambers half a million of men ; besides 125,000 
irregular troops or militii^-^total 626,000 men. The number of 
men under the command of the Mantchoos amounts to 740,000 
men. The ('hinese troops are chiefly cantoned : — 1st. In the 
capital and its environs ; 2nd. Eastwards, near the Amour ; 8rd. 
Westwards, on the banks of the Ele, the penal eolony. It should, 
however, be remarked that large numbers of the Chinese army 
exist oidy cm paper; the names ^and descriptioi^ of each soldier 
are on l^e ttmster-roU, but when'review'^days an^ve, neighbouring 
peasants are collected for a few hours. The commamder-in-chief, 
howdrei^, draws monthly pay for the whole numbct on the muster- 
roll. The- soldiers are all married ; their mide children are en- 
tered «»h ^the tmister-'roll of the army; there is no distinction of 
dress esddpt a jacket. The pay is four taek of rilver per month. 
The 4di' division have land assigned them whieh they cultivate, as 
they could not support themselves on the pay. 

To read' tiieir fa^ks on military art and tactics, it might be sup« 
posed thst their army was in some real state of efficiency, which 
is not <ihe case. The Kiau Ping Siu Chi, is a miAiual; on the duties 
of Chinese soldiers. The first section authorises the commissary 
to provide trust-worthy (colones) camp-followers, who are to be 
instructed in their duties, and to have a license granted them. All 
carts, hcrrses, or waggons, are to be considered publie property.- It 
is the duty of the commanding officers to march in front, while the 
commissaries are to keep in the rear, and bring up and chastise the 
laggers. The soldiers are not to be exhausted with long marches, 
but gentle treatment will beget respect and obedience. 

When on march, the horse soldiers to go first, the foot soldiers 
to follow, and the baggage in the rear. A map, and a statement 
of the cities and camps, should be drawn up for the information 
of all. 

In the second section, instruction is given about the construc- 
tion Of a bridge : — reeds, bundles of straw, and planks of wood are 
genearaUy to be met with, and from these a temporary raft may be 
oonstrooted. When necessity compels an army to encamp on hiUs 
or in forests, great precaution is required that the enemy be not 
posted in die recesses. For this purpose the light companies 
shonkl 'advance b^re aiid examine every hiding place. Great 
oautibn is iiecessary in taking any information from the viib^rs, 
as thieyiha^ have been paid for leading the army in a wrong direo- 
tion. ' 'EKrery^ thing told shotild be sifted to the bottom; as mxs^ 
may bte fwour or^ lost by correct ^Or incoirect intelligence. 

The tfai^ section directs, that each company consisting of 100 
tnen, w to march by its own encampment, and at night to dig a 



MILITABY ART AND INSTBU€TIO(NS. liQ 

« 

treneb^ and ^farovip up a rampairt. On the outside of; Ha^ tHsndh : 
stag*homs are to be planted^ Eadi eompauy is to collect a gcest 
number of stos^s^ and pile th^n up ia heaps at some di^tiilice 
firom each other; also to have blow-pipes, and fire^balk readjr^ AH 
the weapons should be within the immediate reaeh of each sbldier, 
who must not be allowed to takeoff his dot^s at night. The men 
should sleep upon their bow^cases. If the enemy approach, the 
sentinel should twang his bowHstring as a signal— loud talking 
should be avoided. When a camp ^communicates with the habita- 
tions of the people, great caution will be necessary to guard against 
excesses or injury iio the property of others. A portion of soldiers 
from the green flsg^ i^nd a^o the black flag, are to a(^ as consta- 
bles : these are expected to discover if any plots are. being. formed, 
so that the '^ bud mfty be cut off.'^ 

The fourth sectioii refers to flags and drums, which ^ure^ealled the 
^^eyes and ears'- of the soldier, as each companymtvisters under a 
flag of a peculi$»r colour. Four strong men are sdeottd rto Ibake 
care of the i^a^dard, and to cacry it in tuni« Wh^n.- [the 'drum 
sounds aloud, the soldiers ajre to advance with aillfl^eed;*''lttough 
fire and water should be before them/' t . t t . ' i ■, 

' The fifth seetidn enjoins that the soldier shall cajrry hiiralirBaA when 
on march, and not trust them to camp-followers y^^dxAUM itrict 
attention be p^id to the gun-powder. It is recommeoadedlihatt the 
string which isfused instead of a flint, should be wciUboikdito ex- 
tract the sap, las It is made of thin bark. The bidls should* be Iried 
before using, n^ it is necessary to have them fit. prQi>eirly.{\ .v. 

The sixth secti<m relates to the great care that shoiidd bef ^ven 
to horses, to have them in good condition. 

The seventh section requires that camp-followers should be 
steady men. 

In the eighth section, summits of hills are recommended as pro- 
per . places for an encampment, so that a good view may be had of 
the enemy* A spot well supplied with water and grass will avoid 
the evils of hunger. 

The ninth section states, that the distance between each encamp- 
ment should never exceed two miles. 

The tenth advises, that groups of men, varying in number, ahould 
be sent in different routes^ towards the enemies^ quartern * These 
spies are to visit the enemy under ^the appearance of meijoliairts/ or 
to offer their services, in order to pry out thmr secrets, ■ i .^ 

The eleventh section supposes that the enemyia in sight, i £ach 
man is to stand at the distance of fourteen indies Iroajbrhisl •com- 
panion, and ke^ his rank. The cavalry is to be divided into two 
brigades. . When the enemy advance close, a vigoreua firesliould 
be kept up. If the enemy's scouts are seen, it is evid^ i that the 
main-body is very near at hand. In this case bowlmeivnmdcieteers, 
and horsey are to advance ; and alter one discharge^ to refoeat slowly 
— HSLot at <Hice, but at several periods. This movt^nent is to be fol- 



la^Qcl 197 a 4i4ohaxge fcom ike artillary* During the fmake the 
spea^nQen lire to be aeoA forth^md presently the bowmen. Should 
this foil in. vanquiihing the enemyi recouiee n)wt be had to the 
great guns. 

The twelfth notices the different idtuatioi^s i^ which an enemy 
may be posted. J£ it be on a hiU| bold men should be chosen to 
dimb it ; if it be in a low sitvatioa»j MlPnes should be tumbled on 
the heads of the enemy. 

The thirteenth condemns the praotice oS selecting the brayest 
men for the body-guard of an officer, as it is derogatory to the 
dignity and bravery of the army. 

The remaining five iection# imprest w- aU. soldier* the duty 
they owe. their country; and enjoip patiexi^ under the many 
privations they may be subject to j the rewl^:dft that will attend 
victojQr; ai^ the eternal disgrace that is always; attached to a de-> 
feat. |f ,^ #p]^ier has any moral crool^edness in his natore, it is his 
duty t^o XKXfik^ it straight; this the commanding officer should im» 
press on ^ the minds of his men, line upon line, precept upon 
precM)t. . 

Milit^jy colonies exist in Chiipiai foriped somewhat after the 
manm^r of jletu)se qf the Boman^* The poliey.of the present go- 
vern^ ,hfi^ b^ to i^eep.a le^e nupberof miUtary round its 
fxoinfiej^j^^}^, or4er to free the public from the ex;penditure whidi 
their pp^q^enaQce rendered necessary ; the lands of t^he borderenij, 
or of, conquered enemies, were, ther^re, assigned to the soldiers 
in perpei;uity } anid thus an armed peasantry was created. From 
a report from the commanding officer, it appears that the number 
of MantchooB thus placed towardii the Mongolian frontier is very 
much on the increase ; but that the quantity of land assigned is 
not sufficient to rear produce for their own families. The cha- 
racteristfics of the conquerers of China are laziness and improvi- 
dence. Too idle to work themselves, they buv Chinese as slaves, 
pr let out the land to Chinese, who, by hard labour, have obtained 
possession of nearly the whole of the lands, which were allotted, ii^ 
the first instance, to the soldiers. To obviate this evil, and keep 
the defenders of the Tartar government from hunger, the emperor 
granted the request of the petitioners, and bestowed a larger tract 
of land, and a more liberal allowance in money and cattle, upon 
each of the femilies. Throughout all Mantchooria, and along the 
extensive borders of Mongouay and on every fertile spot, to the 
confizi^s o|f Bucharia, the Chinese have established themselves, in 
defiance of severe laws and regulations to the contrary, and are in 
possessfion of all the necessaries of life, whilst the natives of those 
regions are steeped in poverty and wretchedness. 

Government Cf Tarkand an4 its Dependencies. — ^The Chinese go* 
vernment j^taa a military, force at Yarkand of 7,000 men, composed 
of Chi^e^e, .and Mantchops (to keep each other in check); go- 
verned }fj en officer, who i» called Umbaun. This officer is the chief 



ACTIVITY OP WAE BEPAEtMENT. 121 

political as well as military authority. The governor of Yarkand^ 
Abdul Behman Beg Wang, is the nominal Usbeck ruler of the 
country, but suborcSnate in every thing to the Chinese Umbaun. 
^o Tungani soldiers are enlisted, being Mussulmen, and the same 
religion as the Usbecks. There is a capitation teax of one rupee 
from each man pei:. month, and a tenth of the produce of the land. 
Custom duties were abolished a few years ago. There is a bad 
feeling between the natives and the Chinese government, in con- 
sequence of the latter, of late years, walling in the towns by the 
forced labour of the natives. The Chinese troops, in the different 
towns on the frontiers, amount to from 20,000 to 30,000. 

Since the recent contest with England, the War Department 
has shewn symptoms of great activity. In the year 1842-48, 
exertions were being made to erect forts, and repair others that 
were dismantled during the war. Military stores, cannon, 
muskets, &p. are lai^ely purchased from the Americans and 
others. According to the agreement entered into between the 
English and Chruese, none of the fortified places within the river 
should be re-armed, nor any additional preparations made. At the 
time this engsi^mei^t was entered into, Yishan, '^ the great barba- 
rian quelling general,^' in a memorial to his majesty, states, '' as soon 
as the ships of war dqmrt, irxmiediate steps shall be taken, begin- 
ning with the river in front <rf the city, ail the way down to the 
Bocca Tigris i eveiy important pass shall be blocked up, forts 
erected, and gutos mounted j and thus commerce, which to 
these foreigner^ is the very artery of life, can be immediately 
stopped.'^ Old forts above Whampoa have been re-armed, and 
many new ones built, and guns placed in them ; the promise to 
the emperor has been literally fulfilled. It is to be regretted 
that the forts at Canton have been rebuilt ; once opened, the river 
to Canton and Macao Passage, should have remained so. Now the 
fortifications of the Bocca Tigris are as strong as those of the 
Dardanelles ; and manned by European troops and artillery, with 
the heights in the rear of each fort, weU defended by towers, the 
passage of the Canton river would be impracticable. Throughout 
China preparations are making for another war, and some of the 
mandarins boast they are now better prepared for hostilities. 

The PBOYiNCiAii Government of China is different from the 
government of Pekin : to illustrate this vast piece of machinery, 
the following details of the structure are necessary : — The first 
ranks are tsungtuh, (governor or governor-general), and fooyuen, 
(lieutenant-governor.) The first has the control of two or 
more provinces, or of two or more high offices in the same 
province. There is one tsungtuh over three provinces, or over 
two provinces, who is at the same time fooyuen of one of the two, 
and two over single provinces who exercise the functions both of 
tsungtuh and fooyuen. The fooyuen has at all times the direction 
of a whole province, either independently of, or in subordination 



lUt PaOVINCIAL GOVSBKMSNT.'^MILITABY OOVBRNMENT. 

to tt tran^h* 7%ere aie twelre offioevs vho me, and three 
who are not^ thus subordinate j while in three proTiuoes the duties 
of thd offices of fooyuen are performed hy the tsnngtuh. The 
duties of liie tsungtuh consist in the general control of all 
affairs civil and military. The fooyuen has a similar control (except 
where there is no tsungtuh, in an inferior degree), and direction 
of the administratiye department of the civil government. 

The Cml Government of the provinces is divided into five 
departments, viz. commercial, literary, gabel, commissariat, and 
administrative : the latter is subdivided into territorial, financial, 
and judicial branches. 

These subdivisions are governed by a pocNshing^sase, (regulating 
govermnent) and a nagancha-sze, (chief judge), and a heoching, 
(director of learning). The commercial department ofiicers 
(ke^ntuh)'are ajqiointedby the board of reveniie, and generally 
sent Irom Peking to all seaport towns and lairge thorou^ifares to 
collect idle reveune, they are subject to the governor or (fooyuen), 
where theilGt is no tsungtuh, but only in oases of doubt or 
diflSctdty.' • , 

•m\m^ Government has also the co«i«»od df the naval 
forces. There are sixteen commanders-in-chief; (teetuh) twelve of 
whom afe confined to the military branch, but hariB the control of 
the iiilahd navigation ; two are miHtajy, with comuiattd over the 
naval foirce ; and tw^ axe exdusively naval. In the' province of 
Kanseeh, t^iere are two military commanders ; antl in five other 
provinces, the command of the military, is held by the feoyuen. 

In all considerable cities, there is a garrison of '^ Tartar troops,^^ 
who are only subject to the control of the Emperor ; their duties 
are confined to the city in times of peace ; they ai*e commanded 
by a general (tseang-keun). The circumstance of being indepen- 
dent of the city authorities is proof that their special duty is to 
prevent any outbreak arising from treasonable conspiracies that 
might be formed by the provincial authorities. The governor of a 
province being independent, does not prevent him occasionally 
holding a council of all the chief officers to aid his judgment. The 
order oi precedence is tsungtuh, fooyuen, heoching, tseangkeum, 
fetuh, keentuh, pooching-sze, nagancha-sze. The pooching-sze; 
and the nagancha-sze although at the head of dis^ct portions 
of the administrative department, are frequently united when any 
matter' Of importance, such as financial, territorial, or criminal 
cases;, lare to be decided. The next in authority are called taou 
or tAoiutae, and are subordinate to the governor only ; their duty 
is to take ptot in tiie protection and circuit supervision of per* 
tions of the province. Tins class has charge of -the gdbel and 
commissariat departments^ besides military powers. ' Their territo^ 
rial authority extends to two or four deiHurtments, oiqto whidi each 
province is mvided. (See Siaiisiical TaBle^J Snbordkiate to these 
officers; sxe the chefoo and chechaw, magistrates of dislsact 
departments, whose only duty is to know and record every circum- 



. 8UB0BBINATX HMTAWMOSflBJ '. '- - •J>.i^» lt& 

stance thai; occurs inthin tiieir depttrtmont* Silbiilar^ dflSeers are 
appointed over ting, ebow^ and been distiictB. a 

Wben temtoinal duties lire onerous^ asdatants of yariotis deno- 
minations are appointed^ called tnngche and tungpi^any their 
duties are chiefly confined to the care of taxes^ in bo& grain and 
money, tea and salt revalue, attention to the military inspector, 
the police, care of post stations, irstex irays, dykes, and to keep 
the barbarians on the frontiers in subjection. The ting, chaw, and 
been districts baTO also their assistant magistrates. 

When the Emperor issues a proclamation, it is first sent to the 
gOYcmor, who has copies famished to the next officer in rank; and 
so on, down to tiie assistant been magistarate^ In lodgtiig a|^>eals, 
the same course, is followed, only they are first entered with the 
assistant magistnate, and march upwards. 

The Literary Stepartmeni c£ each proTiuce is under .the direc- 
tion of an officer, who is sdected from the Hanlin .doltege, in 
Peking, by the empearor, and is called, (heacbing) direetor^if learn- 
ing. This director appoints teachers, and denominates titeitK as fol- 
lows : The chief teacher of a department, is called, giver of inbtmc- 
tions ; of a chawt^istnct, ooneetor of learning ;. df a^fa^iolildii^ct, 
teacher of the commands. Subordinate to tbem aye (iiUmj^rous 
teachers called guides, and admonisbers. Thereis an imnuel exami- 
nation in each department of the province, wbich is pneiided^over 
by the direc^dr of learning, who is inyested with tho) ipdwer of 
conferring the 'first de^ee. At the triennial examtnatioils^ two 
officers are sent from Peking, to examine the students/ and confix 
the second degree. 

Hie Gabel Department is under the direction of a number of 
commissioners, whose duty is to protect the gOTcmment monopoly 
in salt : they are called, yenching, and rank with the heads of the 
ciTil department of the goyemment. 

The Commismriat D^artment is conducted by twelve commission- 
ers, whose only duty is collecting grain, and conveying it to Peking. 
In six provinces those duties are performed by the pooching-sze. 

The Commercial Department duties are strictly confined to mari- 
time customs, and the prevention of smugghng. The boppo, at 
Canton, is superintendent under this department of govenmient. 

Subordinate Officers in the province. — Erom the magistraites of 
districts upwards, every civil appointment has to be oonfixmed by 
the emperor. In the province of Kwangtung, (Oanton), inhere are 
sev^aty magistrates of districts, and a proportionate number ^in all 
the other provinces ; their superiors are caUed prefect^ also JAsistant 
prefects, fdso eirouit commissioners, who have each tfareeiprefects 
tinder than. . Throughout China the duties of magistsByte luad coU 
lect(»r are united; heu,ce th^re are frequent diang;(^ and removals, 
all of which appear in the Peking Qazette from time to tiide. One 
magistrate ia 'isecalled to Peking, being U3]£t to perform his^ .duties 
from ill health ; onotiier is req[uired to resign the duties of adim- 



jL24 M4&Kt OF OFFICIAL tLAMK. 

niltfi^^pu ipr t^bose of literary tuitiosii the eixmeror havix^ be^i 
infoinaied of hU abilities iu that department of tne government. . 

One officer who £uled in restoring property that waa stolen is 
ultispately reinstated^ as the property has been recovered. In the 
Oaeette may be seen a magistrate restored to his office for bring- 
ing his son to justice for some misdemeanour^ which was the cause 
of his father being degraded. Petty cases are frequently brought 
before the emperw^ at Pekin^ as he claims his ancient feudal 
authority in the capital. His M^esty has frequently expressed 
his abhorreQce of the system, which has lately sprung up of 
employiiig a low set of plundering lawyers^ none of which his 
Maje^y will permit in his manorial court.' Appeals from the 
provinces are numerous, against the tyranny of mandarins and the 
rich, who oppress and plunder the people with impunity. 

T^e unsangeiivent in China of all official persons and employers 
is ixijU>>9i4Q. T^nisMf or orders, each distinguished by a particular 
ballol GT^nOi.^las^, or metal, on the top of the cap. The nine 
are subdivided into two classes, principals and secondaries, but 
without aoy alteration ii\ the distinguislung balls or knobs. 



■ ./I I- ■ 



if 



. Fpr the 1st rank red precious stoi^e, 

9 ,, red coral, 

3 ;, blue precious stone. 

4 „ da^k blue or purple stone. 
6 ,^ chrystal, . 
6 „ white or jade stone. 

8 j^ > a ball of worked gold. 



9 



Officers who have not entered the cour^ of the nine ranks wear 
the same dress as those of the ninth rank. 

The Chinese mandarins of the literary rank are distinguished 
by a silk dress, on which is embroidered the figure of a bird. 

The military officers wear similar dresses on days of ceremony ; 
bat instead of a bird, have the form of a beast, such as a lion, tiger^ 
leopard,. &e. to inspire courage. 

The privileged classes in China are : — 1. the privilege of imperial 
blood and conne^ons j 2. ditto of long service ; 3. ditto of illus- 
trious aotioiius ; 4« ditto of extraordinary wisdom ; 5, ditto of great 
abilities.; d. ditto of zeal $md assiduity; 7. ditto of nobUity; 
8. ditto of birth* 

The ^preservation of certain munes, and the f^voidance of any in- 
terpaixtxure.of Chinese with Tartar words, indicates the anxiety to 
keep the latter distiQct* Thii^ is shewn in thp Peking Gazette of 
KoKnaifaer, 1814 :-r- 

" 1^ foUowiog imperial edict h^ been respectfully received. 
^ In coivreqaence of somp of the imperial family taking the x^ames of 



OFFICIAL klCORD OF PROtfefiDINOS. 196 

Ho-Kwan-pooeo and Tsing-Yting-toe, I sfettd AaWh an Wdi^!^>fei 
quiring them to be changed. Yesterday, Tuiig-dee, my ridyal eoitsifij 
stated verbally, that a great many of the imperial kingdom had 
taken names containing three chartu^ers, and Which did liM form 
a Tartar word. He requested that all sti6h feihould be Ol-dei^d to 
change their names. His request is by no taieabs propel*. Those 
under the Tartar banner, adopting a Chinese name> 6re not pef-> 
mitted to take thtee Characters. The sons of the eight banners 
take Tartar names, in which three or four eharactero are used ; and 
from a change in the teimination of a Word, they do ttot well agree 
with the Tartar langusige. If they be ordered to> cbailge, tt Will 
cause confasion; and be unsuitable to the dignity <6f govettament. 
It is ordered, that in dl these cases, the^ ac?t as ^tt^e&ate. 

Respetfl «ris.' ** 

The Chinese, br nathet the Tartar, government ii China, pub- 
lishes a work in forty-eight volumes, Whidh ii the official i^ecoi'd of 
the proceedings atid duties of the rulers in theii* ^eVefipal' dfepurt- 
taents : — 

Vol. I. is on the office of the imperial kindred> ^«iWI I6& th^ ma^ 
nagement of this department. The Tartar policy is to keep the 
majority of the numerous imperial progeny in a very low condition, 
as the imperial design is to retain the princes on a level with the 
people. Many of them receive but three taels {£1 3».) a month, 
so that sevcs^ Work as sei-vants. An accurate register of the 
births, marriages, and deaths, in the imperial family, is carefully 
kept. 

Vol. II. is On the Nui-ko, or Cabinet, which consists of six; 
generally oM men> who have raised themselves to the highest Seat 
in the empire ; their duty is to assist the emperor in the govern- 
ment of the empire> to circulate his edicts, and attend at sacrifices. 

Vol. III. is on the KiUn Ki-chu, or Privy Council-. This is the 
most powerful body in the kingdom : the members are chosen by 
the emperor himself. Hey meet from three to five each day, fend 
any thing that requires despatch or energy, is done by them : they 
appoint and remove the residents at Tibet, Turkestan, &c. ; and 
they supply these colonies. They select presents for tribute- 
bearers, and translate public documents into and fit>m any foreign 
languages, &c. 

Vol. IV. is on the Li Pu, or Board of Civil Office, whose duly 
is to assist His Majesty in all arrangements coneeming ttee rank> 
examination, promotion, or degradation of officers ; the ra»k fend 
titles of the nobility, rewards, &c. They have at theip disposal 
(subject to the approval of the emperor) the patronage of 1,934 
offices, from the governor of a province, down to the distmt Dsegis*- 
trate, with a great number of inferior civilians. » ' 

Vol. V. is on the Board of Public Instruction. T?he miniber of 
functionaries under this board are 1^,996 of all^rftdes*) of 'these 
8,931 are teadiers entrusted with the exami^Eiations.^ In/Uie graiDi 



1A6 j^xmnu w db^akvubnts. 

ifsjmitmep^ than m one governor, aiid tweltv^ mspeeMrs. In tlie 
salt office^ ciglil superintendents^ five assistants^ thirteen inspec- 
tore> ^nd other mmor <yflBicevs. There are in the board of inland 
navigation, three governors, fourteen managers, thirty-fonr de- 
puties^ ftmL some dther officers, who bear miUtair rank, who have 
the ixAj of pxeaerviiig ike djkes, and the protection of navigation 
on their rivers. 

Vol. YL eoqpatistes on the mode of choice, and on the various 
ways of promoting officers, &c. 

Vol. VII. is on the Hn Pu, or Board of Bevenue, which is 
charged with the finances, payment of salaries, and the manage- 
ment of the granioies. It also ooiilains the situation of the various 
distsiets' of the empire, and a vocabulary of the^ principal rivers 
and mountains. ' 

Voh/VIH.coiKtaias the Censuses, asid degrees- of latitude and 
longitude) of the sereralpnmnces, as caloulailed'by the Jesuits. 

Vol. IX. is on the expenditure of the state j and is arranged 
underrtirdve heads >-^or sacrifices ; popular festivals ; allowance for 
officers; for their servants; the exaininatioiis j soldi^s' batta ; 
stipeiMb' of icotlriiBrS ; inland navigation ; sundries ; manufactures ; 
iuidiaalairiesu> v * > - • 

Vielli.£. Wxe details of the income and expenditore in some 
branches; the mines and the mint* 

Vol.. SlIj, (The build of boats; the * transit *of gi^adn; and excise 
duty leifL merchandise. 

Vol. XII. is on the settling of disputes as to the pay of the 
soldien^ of tiie eight Mantchoo banners, and other soldiers ; on the 
supply of the conmussariat with money and food ; and how to watch 
and overhaul the treasury and granaries, for fear of roguery. 

VoL XIII. expatiates on the Li Pu, or Board of Rites, and is 
one of the strong-holds of the despotic govermnent ; it illustrates 
the hold of etiquette on the people. 

Vol. XIV. dilates on the robes of state, worn at the court cere- 
nMmi^s, to be observed between the difi^erent officcohs of state when 
they visit each other. 

. Vol. XV. gives an account of aU their schoote and colleges, and 
how the examinations are carried on. 

VeL XVL gives a detailed account of the M&^ examinations, 
and on the duties of candidates for office. It also treats on the 
,sea]8io£tii& various departments, as used under the board of rites. 

VoLiKVIL gives a minute account of their temples and altars; 
of thfe^mrious deities and saints worshipped hf government, and 
the ceremonies in the temples. 

V4)L XVIII. is a menUal of the harem ; it regukteef the dress 
and etiquette to be obsen^ed by ladies of the court. 

VoL' aIX, is on the paresents to be given to tribute-bearers ; an 
account of those kingdoms that paid tribute to China; on the 
geBevariiy^ 4hai should be shown to tribiile^bearers that come a 



BWTAlhS, OF SERVItrm 13T 

long diataaee^.op samfi^s to tbe gods of thoae Bttkidnfii^^UDLicl » de- 
i|criptiosi of isckpepial. baimuets to the Imng and the dead^ ' 

Vol. XX. IB entur^yr qsk mime, wad tibe names of the-Aies to be 
played on 43^r|lam oeotMnansk 

Vol. XXI. ia ^an, the Ping-pu^ or Board of War; and gives the 
number of all offieeps and garrisonftin theeiQiHre^ and their reviews. 

Vol. XXII. is a continuation of the former; gives an aoconnt of 
the navy^ the jbs^ansport service^ aad the Tartar garrisons in the 
provinces. 

Vol. XXIII, details the ranks of mililayry officers^ which are 
eighteen. 

Vol. XXIV. i^;On saariial law, whidi is vcrysefvere; treats of 
the nobility that 13 open to the brave> and to the protection of the 
children of those who die on the field of battle. 

Vol. XXV^ ifi^^Q^,^ the oavahry^and poals ; as dw^ foot-soldiers are 
considered aa |^rme4 police, so the cavahy axe niier6' couriers to 
carry despatdb^s* . . . <.> * ■ i 

Vol. XXVI. gives, an acoount of van, rear, and odntveiof the 
army; its battsJliond. and companies. ^^ ;^ ^ 

Vol. XXVII. i« on the Hing-Pu, or Board xtf PcmishineiitB ; it 
details the several modes of punishment^ according ta the t ambient 
laws: subdi?«rj:4os 4^e j^jdstbig codes; iteduces all tbe .siatotes it 
contains to matters concerning the ^ boards. >< ' , c > • 

VoLXXVm. ^ateS'.largdy on prisons; the eom&i^tation of 
punishments; assizes; and an outline of tl^. seventeen} pirincipal 
courts, with other matters* I < 

Vol. XXIX. is on the Kiing'^Pu, or Board of Public Worksw* The 
imperial tombs rank first, and next to them the dykes and inland 
navigation ; it likewise gives a full descriptien of tihe imperial city. 

Vol. XXX. enforces the manufacture of arms and gunpower ; 
the selection of pearls for the use of the Emperor; the public 
works along the rivers and canals. 

• Vol. XXXI. gives an ample description of the tombs of the em- 
perors and other persons; the granaries, the mint, the powder 
manufacture, &c.; and points out the places they are to be found. 

Vol. XXXII.. is on the Ldfan Yuen, or Colonml OfSce, which is 
managed entirely by Mongols. It regulates the emoluments of 
the nobility, appoints the audiences of the chiefs, and ifevisee their 
punishmente. 

Vol. XXXII J. is on Outer Mongioiis^ and contains tiie names of 
the different hordes and their chiefs, from the lowest to' i^e ruling 
khans. It T^aa a short account of the trade with Russia, and 
enumerates the post establishments. ....... > 

Vol, XXXIV. gi^es Amffne .minute description ofvtb6 Mongol 
princes : the tribute th^* pay ; their relationship ; the }lresents 
they recjeive ;; and an account of the nobility, revenue, and. siJbnation 
of Turkestan^ ^ 

Vol. XXXV« i^peaks of the Ceasorate and. it& vltfious funotions ; 



138 ALLOl^ANGSa OF THE EMPEBOR. 

of the Cotirt of Requests^ thifongh which all impoi^ant papers pass ; 
of the Taleshi, or court for revising the judgemeut <^ other boards 
and re-examining sentences for capital crimes. 

Vol. XXXVI. On the imperial stud, and the display of the 
Tartars when denizens of the wilderness. 

Vol. XXXVII. gives an account of the eating establishment, 
and the sacrifices known as the Kwangluh-shi ; and en account of 
the annual ceremonial of ploughing in the fields, and the ex- 
aminations in the palace. 

Vol. XXXVlIt. contains an account of the national school, in 
which the sons of meritorious officers are supported ; and on the 
Kin Tien Kin, or Astronomical Board, which is to foretel coming 
events, lucky hours, and national calender. 

Vol. XXXIX. is a treatise on Chinese astronomy. 

Vol. XL. is on the business of astronomers, vnd on the medical 
college and its various functions. 

Vol. XLI. is on the imperial T}ody-guard, and the service they 
perform. 

Vol. XLIl. gives an account of the eight standardly of the powers 
of the Mantchoos, and thrir domestic arrangements at births, mar- 
riages, and deaths. 

Vol. XLIII. details their duties and reviews> tod their duties 
when on active service, ftc. 

Vol. XLI V. is on artillery, mortars, batteries, &C. 

Vol. XLV. is an inventory of the things in the treftsurjr. 

Vol. XL VI. is on the marriages of the emperor and princesses ; 
and on the duties they ought to perform. 

Vol. XLVII. is on the administering of punishments 

Vol XL VIII. enumerates all the pleasure gardens in and around 
Peking, and their uses ; and an account of their eating establish- 
ments. There ought to be placed before the emperor eveiy day 
twenty-two catties of meat in a basin; five catties boiled in soup; of 
hogslard one catty ; two sheep, two fowls, and two duxks ; the 
milk of sixty cows ; one catty of butter ; and seventy-five parcels oi 
tea. The empress is allowed about one-half of the above quantity. 
The other ladies and maids receive in proportion to their rank. 
Lamas are appointed to read prayers, they being the chaplains of 
the court. 

The number of mandarins dispersed throughout China is said 
to amount to 13,647. The military mandarins are 18,500, together 
with 2,400 at court, where every province has its mandarin, who 
stands in the nature of its protector and scdicitor^gen^al. 

Employments are divided among the mandarins in the following 
manner : — ^when a candidate has gained two or three degrees of 
literature, his name is placed on the register 6( the tribunal Li pu, 
which office distributes the vacant offices according to the rank and 
merit of the literati, who, when qualified, repair to court for that 
purpose ; but they Mre seldom raised to be governors of cities of 



OFFICIALS AND THEIR SALARIES. 129 

the second and third rank at first. As soon as four yacancies 
occnr^ the Emperor is acquainted with the circumstance, and then 
the four first candidates on the register are called, and the names 
of the vacant cities are written on tickets, and put in a box placed 
so high as just to be within reach of the candidates, who are on their- 
knees; each obtains the city which falls to his lot. 

The number, rank, and salaries of high officers in China are said 
to be as follows : — 

Salaries. 
Rank. Number. lo Ounces Total. 

of Silver. 

^'prSceT """'Z! T"" } 11 • 20,000 . 220,000 ' 
Governors of provinces . . 15 . 16,000 . 240,000 
Collectors of revenue . . . 19 . 9,000 . 171,000 

^7ltT ""^ '""^*^ *"■ } 18 • ^'^ • 108'0«> 

"^^TTtdSl^r"^.} «6 . 3,000 . 258,000 

Ditto only of one citj . . 184 . 2,000 . 368,000 

Ditto of the second order . 149 . 1,000 . 149,000 

Ditto of the third order . .1,305 . 800 . 1,044,000 

Presidents of literature . . 171 ©Ann Ai\nr,nr\ 

Inspectors general ... 117/ ^'^^ ' ^^^^OO 

Total ounces . . 2,960,000 



Fees and bribes are so universal, that the actual receipts of each 
official are unknown. 

All superior officers in the jHrovinoes of China must appear at 
court every three years. A memorial from the governors of Yunnan 
province, which is several thousand miles from Pekinig, complained 
of the expense, and the Icmg and fatiguing journey, besides the 
loss of their services. The memorialists state that their pay will 
not admit of military officers doing so, and the consequence is, that 
they will resort to corrupt practices, in order to supply the neces- 
sary expenses. This triennial journey is ordered to prevent officers 
obtaining too much influence in the province, and they are gene- 
rally slufted when they visit Peking. The code contains a 
prohibition against officers of government holding employment in 
their native province, or to marry or hold landed property in the 
district under their control. The present Emperor in 1838 
revived an old edict, requiring all officers to direct their communi- 
cations to himself, and not under cover; as he states it is Ukely to 
lead to dangerous and corrupt combinations. The late Emperor in 
the year 1818 prohibited all magistrates from holding familiar 
intercourse with county gentlemen, unless they held some official 
station. 



180 FRECA&IOUS TENUEB 09 OFFICE. 

. The fixed salary of the governor of a province is said to be 
16,000 taek, (about Sd. each tael) per annnmj with a house^ &c.^ 
the emoluments are calculated at ten times that sum. The Hoppo 
has 2800 taels. The households of these officials are very numer- 
ous, amounting frequently to 160 domestics, all of whom are 
Mantchoo Tartars. From the acknowledgements which are fre- 
quently met with in the Peking Gazette, of money remitted to 
Peking, from the Hoppo of Canton, it is supposed to be sent for a 
renewal of his office. One Hoppo (Chung) had got into arrear 
when in office in Eeangnan, to the amount of 217,0(X) taels. The 
first year he was in office in Canton, he remitted tQ Peking on 
account of his former deficiency 60,000 taels, the second year 
46,000 taels. This office was worth from 250,000 to 300,000 
taels per annum, a large portion of which is sent to the emperor 
as a gift. His household numbered over 2(X) persons* Governors 
and Foyuens when installed into office, have also conferred on them 
an honoraiy title, Foocha, (censor) by virtue of which office they are 
expected to confess their faults, and strange as it may appear, 
instances are met with in the Peking Gazette ; but the crimes are so 
trivial, that it is evident they are sent in to deceive the Emperor, 
and divert him from examining into some grave malversation that 
is probably going on at the time« 

The last section of the fifth book, on criminal law, enacts that 
aU military officers of government are prohibited from receiving 
gold, silver, silk stud's, clothes, ornaments, or board wages, from 
individuals related to the royal family, in any of the three principal 
ranks of hereditary nobility. For the first ofience, degradation 
and banishment are awarded. 

As an act of fealty, every civil and military officer in China, who 
receives an appointment, or surrenders one which he held for the 
stipulated period, viz. three years, must repair to the capital, and 
attend a sacrifice, in company with other officers, who must certify 
that he there professed himself a dutiful adherent of the Confucian 
doctrine. A hog is usually sacrificed, as the most useful animal. 

The precarious tenure of office, and the vicissitudes of public func- 
tionaries, are very great. Keshen, whose name must be familiar to 
Europeans, was governor-general of Keangnan and Keang-se^ the 
highest provincial appointment. He then became assistant minis?- 
ter in the cabinet and government of Chih-li province, in which 
capacity he ruled the court, and more or less the whole empire. 
He was too well acquainted with the Mandarins to let them escape, 
and therefore had from time to time denounced some hundreds of 
them for their misdeeds. The Emperor did nothing important 
without asking his opitiion. This enviable station, as well as his 
censorious character, procured him many enemies. It was iu this 
idltuation the English expedition found him. He was most desirous 
to be the '* pacificator,'^ as were also his antagonists, though from 
far different motives, and thus the over-prudeut statesman fell into 



COMMISSIOHBR K6SH£N. 181 

the snafe which his enemies had laid for him. For not having been 
able to exterminate the rebellious barbarians, he was sent in chains 
to Peking, and his truly enormous fortune was confiscated, and 
sentence of death followed immediately. The Emperor had not 
lost all regard for his old favourite, and did not sign the warrant for 
his execution. When Ning-po had been captured, and everything 
he had foretold had been fulfilled, he was released firom the dungeon^ 
and sent to Hang^choo to conclude the best convention that was 
possible, but without rank or power for effecting such a purpose. 
On his arrival at the city, he was sent back by the governor, who 
stated he would not admit a traitor. On his return to Pekin he 
was unnoticed, and in want of the common necessaries of life. 
When peace was concluded, the Emperor gave him a colonial ap-* 
pointment, but was overruled by his enemies ; however, he took him 
into the palace as his personal servant. He is now viceroy of Tibet, 
and accumulating another fortune. 

The servile dependence upon each other, in which all the govern- 
ment officers are placed, has produced the contrary effiect to what 
was intended ; in fact, it acts as a bond of union between them not 
to betray each others' malversation, and encourages the utmost 
artifice and ingenuity in a system of universal fraud and peculation. 

The inviolable etiquette of the Chinese court affords great facility 
to those who wish to bUnd the Emperor, and contributes to 
strengthen this system of universal corruption. As no representa- 
tion can reach the throne except through the appointed channels, 
and as these channels are only open to whoever pays the highest 
price, it is obvious whose complaints will be attended to. De 
Guignes, who was an apologist for the Chinese in many points, 
states that a viceroy at Canton would admit no suitor who could 
not pay a sum equal to £4500. 

It may be asked why the government, laws, and false philosophy 
of the Chinese have been extolled by some European writers ? This 
must proceed from their admiration of the benevolent doctrine of 
Confucius, who exhorts his sovereign to consider and govern his 
people as his own ikmily. 

This principle is only applicable in the infancy of society, where 
the limits within which the chief acts, enable him to see everything 
with his own eyes; the feeling of personal relationship is a bond 
of union between the governor and governed, and the dread of 
competitors operates as a check upon his actions. 

The want of this check is severely felt in China, particularly du- 
ring the last Emperor's reign, when there was nothing but commo- 
tion within and without, invasion, confiscation, cruelty, and 
tyranny; the censors who performed their duty were handed over 
to the executioner. 

The Chinese system of governing the people as a family, has been 
rightly viewed as a beautiful theory, but quite impracticable; for 
as the sovereign is unable to see all his children, he must employ 

k2 



192 SQUEEZING THE OFFICIAL 8PUNGE. 

deputies. These imperial deputies are sent all over the empire oii' 
special business. When these deputies arrive in a province 
they take precedence over the governors. The Mandarins give 
attendance to these envoys and make them large presents^ 
which their salaries would not enable them to do, and hence cor- 
ruption and extortion are practised by all. 

The orders of the Emperor become null, and the recripocal vigi* 
lance of the Mandarins, is converted into a mutual league to 
secure themselves from inquiry. Occasionally, cases of tjrranny 
are exposed, and the governors or Mandarins suspendea for a 
short time, all their property confiscated, and them sent to a 
strange province to replenish their empty coffer&k The learned 
M. de Ouignes who resided many years in Peking, thus illustrates 
the system : — " The Emperor of China, makes use of his girandeea 
as sponges to , suck up the wealth of his subjects ; when the , 
sponge is full he squeezes it, and sends it elsewhere to be filled > 
anew/' 

Whatever may have been the former state of Chinese morals, 
there is at the present day an acknowledged total absence of 
public virtue. Europeans lay great stress on the courtesy and 
pphteness of the Chinese, which is considered allied to virtue in 
the western w(»rld. With the Mandarins those virtues are all 
assumed, and are the weapons with whieh they attack and 
defend their diplomacy ; when European embassies have visited 
Pekin, and their houses and doors were double guarded, this was 
represented as a guard of honour. That their politeness gives 
place entirely to insolence and selfishness, was abundantly proved 
by their false misrepresentations to our ambassadors. The bar- 
barous treatment received by the Soman Catholic missionaries, who 
imported to them a knowledge of various sciences, is well known% 
No language can describe the indignities offered to Mezsabarba, 
(in 1721) the Pope's legate, by Lee-pung*shung the great Man-* 
darin. De Lang, the Russian resident minister, received sudi 
treatment, that he very soon apphed for permission toretire* Mr. 
Thoin, Mr. Lay, Mr. Medhurst, Dr. Outzlaff, and all conversant 
with the Chinese character, concur in stating that the meanness, 
cunning, and rapacity of the Chinese officials are alone equalled by 
their cowardice and sensuality. 

The Confucian philosophy may well be tested by the effect it 
has produced on the character of all the great officers, both mill** 
tary and civil, who as a matter of necessity must have profoundly 
studied its works. As to virtue, public or private, in a Mandarin, 
it may be sought for in vain. However writers and visiiiors to 
China differ in their descriptions of the country, all agree on one 
point, viz. : that the Mandarins are mean, corrupt, unjust, insin- 
cere, proud, and assuming. These are the sages of China ; and 
when it is recollected the class they generally come from, it is not 



CO&KXnBTION OP PUBLIC FUNCTIONARIES. 188 

to be wondered that their parents have probably inflicted on them 
aexnal mutilation^ to give them a chance of promotion. 

There were upwards of 6,000 eunuchs at Peking at the period of 
the conquest* The present dynasty is said to have greatly reduced 
the number, and driven them from the palace; but it is to be 
feared that sensuality is returned to the court, as there has been 
an increase in the number of these unhappy creatures. 

The corruption of the Chinese functionaries may be estimated 
from two instances : Keshen and Hokwan. Keshan, formerly a 
meinber of the Peking cabinet, was deputed, in 1840, as plenipo- 
tentiary to settle affairs with the western barbarians ; for not doing 
«o, he was degraded, his property confiscated, and he was sent in 
chains to Peking, there to undergo a lingering death, and his body 
to be cut in small pieces to serve as food for the vultures. He was 
then forty-five years of age, and his property was at first estimated 
at £8,000,000 sterling, but was subsequently found to be much 
greater. Among the property seized and delivered over to the im- 
perial treasury for the special use of his majesty, were 682 catties of 
gold; 17,940,000 taels of silver, and eleven boxes of jewels. On a 
second search, a vast quantity of gold, silver, and other property 
was found, including 2,561,217 Chinese acres of land, and shares 
in pawnshops, banks, saltworks, &c. His wives and concubines 
were ihen sold by auction, and produced a large sum. Keshen^s 
life was subsequently spared, and he is now again as before obr 
served amassing a large fortune as governor of Tibet. 

Hokwan, Hoquen, or Ho-chung, the once illustrious statesman 
of China, was a Tartar of obscure birth, and raised himself from 
the inferior station of guard of one of the palace gates. His 
manners were pleasing^ and his understanding penetrating and 
acute. His son was married to the emperor^s daughter. Tins 
circumstance alarmed both the imperial family and the loyal sub- 
jects. He had great c(Hitrol over the aged Emperor, and his well- 
known dislike to foreigners was proved in the failure of Lord 
Macartney's embassy, which was clearly traceable to his extraordi^ 
nary influence. 

One ofBicer, who disiplayed more loyalty than wisdom, addressed a 
petition to the emperor, praying him to declare his successor to the 
throne during his lifetime. The memorialist wfis instantly sen- 
tenced to death by the criminal tribunal, whose p^sident was the 
ereature of Hokwan. Apprehensions were genei;aelly entertained 
that, on the death of the emperor, he would attempt an open re- 
volt ; with a view of frustrating this intention, the young emperor, 
Keaking, appointed him to the honourable office of superintendent 
jover the rites of mourning, on his father^s decease ; this duty con^ 
fined the minister to the palace, and made his arrest less dangerous^ 
as every one in power was indebted to him for their authority. 

In the fourth year of his reign, a.d. 1799, and when the days of 



134 hokwan's confiscatibd prope&ty. 

monming had ceiased^ the new Emperor made known his long pre* 
meditated designs, by seizing Hokwan, and divesting him of rank 
and employment. The following are the charges preferred by his 
imperial accuser : " That being summoned by our royal father to the 
palace, he rode on horseback through the left gate ; that the young 
females brought up for the service of the palace he took to blmself 
as concubines; that during the late rebellion in the provinceSj 
Hokwan was receiving reports from the troops, and did not com- 
municate the result to our royal father, although bereft of sleep 
from anxiety; that his own kindred were intrusted with high 
offices for the duties of which they were incompetent ; that in the 
late confiscation (which was previous to any trial or charge) of his 
property, many of the apartments were found built of the imperial 
wood (nanmoo), and gardens were constructed in the style of the 
imperial palace ; that among his treasures, upwards of 200 strings 
of pearls were found, many times exceeding in value those in our 
possession ; various gems and buttons were found, sodi as he shcrald 
not wear/' All these charges were proved, and acknowledged by 
his own confession; and the sentence was, ''that he should receive 
a slow and painful death/' But, in consideration of his once ex- 
alted rank, (through imperial favour,) he was permitted to become 
his own executioner. The estimated value of his bullion was 
about £28,000,000 sterling. Sir G. Staunton says, that '' besides 
lands, houses, and other immoveable property, to an amaaang 
amount, not less than 80,000,000 Chinese ounces of silver, about 
£28,880,000 sterling value in bullion and gems were found in his 
treasury/' The gold found deposited in the walls of his house, 
amounted to 4,800 pounds weight. 

All officers of government, from the first to the ninth rank, 
must have literary or military qualifications; but derks and atten- 
dants are classed the same as the community generally. The 
ninth rank includes village magistrates, jailers, inferior treasurers, 
&c. The large (foo) cities, and (been) districts (see statistical table), 
have from 100 to 1,000 unpaid police. 

The 48th section of the penal code gives the sole appointments 
and removals of all military or civil officers to the Emperor. Any 
violation of this section is punished with death. A memorial from 
a censor, which lately appeared in the Peking Gazette, requests 
the Emperor to put a stop to several glaring abuses, such as magis- 
trates quitting their districts to look for promotion, while the col- 
lection of the revenue is left to underlings who fleece the people. 
A second abuse is, that governors appoint magistrates to be their 
secretaries, and thus obtain their services without payment, and 
afterwards recommend them to the Emperor for higher employment. 
Another abuse complained of is, that governors take into their 
employment the most worthless characters, and raise them to 
respectable stations. The censors' reports fully illustrate the 
theory and practice of the Chinese government. Concerning the 



MAGISTXaiAL BRIBERY. 135 

state of the province of Chih-li, in the suburbs of Peking^ the cen* 
sors report^ that ^^ the ma^strates^ without fear or shame^ connive 
at daring robberies; that horse-stealers bring their plunder for 
sale to the fairs and markets; that in a village adjoining the im- 
perial palace are many thieves, who are joined by a number of 
Mohammedans, who go out in bands of thirty and forty to plunder; 
when some of them are taken, the magistrates order them a few 
blows and imprisonment, from which tiiey are allowed to escape. 
We beg that your majesty will make a selection of honest, decided 
mmi, who will not favour or screen this banditti in future/' In 
the subsequent year, the government of Peking removed upwards 
of ^,000 underlings from various employments, charged with ex- 
tortion and cruelfy, from the province of Chih-li alone. 

The governor of the Chih-li province points out to the emperor 
that the evil arises from not paying the police a reasonable salary ; 
and a^ks for a loan of 100,000 taels from the public funds; one- 
half to be placed out at compound interest in merchants' hands 
until it has increased to the original smn, when it shall be returned 
to the treasury; the other half to be applied to the payment of the 
police. 

A censor, who was also a superintendent of grain in the province 
of Shen-se, reported, in 1830, that it is a common occurrence to see 
a corpse floating in the river ; on asking the people why they did 
not inform the magistrates, they answer, that in case the magis- 
trate is told, he compels the owner of the ground where a corpse is 
found to purchase a coffin at his own expense; and his clerks 
and attendants take advantage of this circumstance to extort 
money by threatening him with a prosecution for being concerned 
in the death* 

The censor goes on to say, " I hear that during the fourth and 
fifth moons^ when the heavy rains fSsdl, that many people are 
drowned ; particularly when the grain vessels arrive, there is a great 
concourse of people assembled, the number of sailors, pedlars, &c., 
that are drowned is incalculable, and the magistrates seem to take no 
notice of the affair. It is, therefore, my duty to request that your 
majesty will command the governor of Chm-li province, and the 
miUta^ officers of the district of Shunteen, to give strict orders to 
the poUce that when they meet with a dead body, they should exa- 
mine into the cause of death, and give information : also to prohibit 
magistrates, clerks, and police, from extorting money under false 
pretences ; and to order coffins to be purchased at the public ex- 
pense/^ 

Dr« Gutslaff officially reported, recently, that '' honesty of pur- 
pose is a quaHly so rare in China, that the possessor of it is looked 
upon as an extraordinary character/' During the war, in 1840-1, 
the most egregiously false reports were made of our utter defeat 
and destruction, by the provincial authorities to the government 
at Peking : in fact, according to the annals of the East India Com- 



186 MAOISTEEtAL BEIBSBY« 

pany at Cantos^ " duplicity and oohruption haye been manifested 
for two hundred jcbib" The Select Committee of the East India 
Company at Canton^ £re(}uently refer in their records to the *' gross 
misrepresentations and impositions practised by local authcMrities 
on the Emperor and his ministers at court/' This is ooxvoborated 
in yarious ways ; and it is confidently stated that the imperial 
goyemment haye, eyen to the present day, not been made fully 
acquainted with the origin and proceedings of the Me waif; oon- 
sequently, the arriyal of our fleet in the Yang*>tsze»kang produced 
the greatest consternation at Peking. An instance of this systema- 
tic falsehood and corruption is thus giyen in the *' Hong Kong 
Begister/' of May 6th, 1845 ; of the authenticity of which there is 
no doubt: — ^'^When Canton was ransomed, and the money fnr 
that purpose drawn from the provincial treasury, a report was 
made to the emperor that it was a debt due to the foretgnera hy 
the Hong merchants, who were unable to pay it; and these latter 
were induced to sign a document to that effect, on the assurance 
being given them that it should not be used against them« How* 
ever, after the affair was terminated, various attempts were made 
to extort the amount from them, but without success. Headed by 
Howqua's eldest son, who has taken a literary degree^ and who 
threatened to lay the matter befpre the Emperor, they refused to 
pay more than 2,000,000 dollars, which they admitted to be due 
by the merchants to the Emperor. The local autlM>rities have^ at 
last, agreed to accept this amount ; and thus has terminated an 
affair which has been a source of great uneasiness to the Hong 
merchants, and was considered sufficiently important to the for^gn 
trade, to induce Mr. Cushing, the American plenipotentiary, to 
address Keying on the subject. 

^' The following is the amount paid by each Hong merchant : — 
Howqua, 550,000 taels; Poonkeequa^ 200,000 taels; Samqua» 
200,000 taels; Oowqua, 200,000 taels; Kingqua, 60,000 dollars; 
Poouhoyqua, 60,000 dollars; Mowqua, 60,000 dollars; Footae, 
50,000 dollars; Mingqua, 60,000 dollars; and SowquA, 60,000 
dollars* . One-thud to be paid in four months, and the remaiiider 
in ten annual instalments/' 

The majority of the people of Canton haye been induced to be-* 
lieve that the English paid a lai^e stun of monfiy to be aUowed to 
retire unmolested from before the walls of Canton. A few oiJamcto. 
from the East India Company's records will illustrate the praeeed- 
ings and policy of the Chinese government. 

The Select Committee of the East India Company at Cantttn, re- 
corded in 1831, their deliberate opinion that th^ bi^toty of Okiaa 
diows " numerous instances of eyen acta of undue, yiolenoej meeting 
with respectful treatment in return from the igovevnment^ wbi^ 
persons living in obedience to its laws were suffering from severe 
aud unmerited oppression;*^ and in 1807, the Select Committee re- 



TABTAR POLICY TO EUROPEANS. 137 

marked that ** the weakness and corruption of the Chinese govern- 
ment proved a counterpcnse to its pride and arrogance/^ 

In 1830, the Select Committee stated the '^ Chinese government 
evince a malignant temper in the publication of several insulting 
and opprobrious edicts, promulgated with the evident intention of 
degrading the character of fordgners amongst the lower order of 
the natives, and calculated in a high degree to aggravate the feel- 
ings of the former, and excite the disposition of the latter to offen- 
sive acts/^ The whole British community in Canton protested 
against the indignities heaped upon them by the Chinese govern- 
ment. 

Again, they record that the English there '' are daily in contact 
with the lowest of the Chinese, and exposed to assaults 8o tvantan 
and often so barbarous, as well as to robberies so extensive, that 
self-defence imposes upon them the necessity of attacking their 
assailants in a manner from whence d;eath must often ensue.'' 

In another place the Select Committee says, " The contempt of 
foreigners, engendered and fostered by the abusive terms in which 
they are spoken of by the qffieers of goi>emmeKt, the want of police 
regulations, and the defenceless state in which we are placed, leave 
UB exposed to assaults of all descriptions.'' 

This passage might have been written at the present moment, 
Nov. 1846; for it depicts the condition of the British and 'other 
foreign residents at Canton, even under the provisions of the treaty 
of nSmu and it. equaUy irfortunate supplement. 

Dr. Gutzlaff in his official report, says '^ China is faithless as a 
nation, and its government is based on expediency." Mr. Thorm, 
our coiMul at Canton, and an excellent Chinese sdiolar, says, ''the 
Chinese are devoid of trath imd moralB, and the offidalsS^ithout 
honesty or principle." Mr. Lay, consul at Amoy, and a Chinese 
scholar, tses still stronger language on the subject. He says, '^ the 
Tartar government, £rom the highest to the lowest, are Uars and ex- 
tortioners, possessed of witty cunning and ingenious malice; proud 
and insolent ;" (page 3, of published work). More recently, viz. : 
at Amoy, in June, 1845, Mr. Lay declared that the **rtders of 
China are the greatest villains on the face of the earth, — ^there was 
not one to be toisted." Mr. Lay's sentiments of the people gene- 
rally, particularly those of the north provinces, were favourable. 
Everywhere in China I heard the same opinions from those conver- 
sant with the character and language of the Tartars and Chinese ; 
and that the government only considered treaties to be binding so 
long as it was expedient to uphold them. 

The following code or abstract of instructions, from the govern- 
ment of China to thesr licensed merchants at Kiackta, displays great 
cunning, duplicity, and meanness. 

• . ** The end and aim of every comniercial nation, should be to pre- 
vent the advantage being on the side of the foreigners : — > 



188 TARTAR INSTRUCTIONS FOE FORBIONKRS. 

". 1st. To do this effectually, all letters received by any one of the 
licensed merchants, from their partners, are only to be opened in a 
public assembly, so that all may act in concert against the fo- 
reigners. « 

'' 2nd. Discover what articles the Russians are mostin need of, 
and what price these sell for in Russia. Every member is to strive 
with all his might, to obtain information on this head, and lay it 
before a general meeting ; when the president will give to each a 
note, which will state the quantity of each article he is to purchase, 
and the price he is to buy them at ; and likewise those which he is 
to withhold. 

''8rd. The least display possible, as to the quantity of Chinese 
goods, that may be brought for sale; do not appear anxioos tfxr 
Russian goods. 

" 4th. The Chinese goods should be at all times less m quantity, 
than Russian; that no fresh goods be brought forward, until the 
old are sold off. 

'^ 6th. Let no eagerness be shown for an article of Russian manu« 
fEicture; no matter how much any one member may wish to pro- 
cure it.'^ 

'' 7tlL When the Rmnians are scantily supplied with any valuable 
article, great eagerness should be displayed to purchase the whole 
stoek, saying that it was in good demand ; and then to he equally 
divided between each merchant : the consequenoe will be, that the 
next year, a large stodL will be brought to market, and great bar- 
gains will be procured, by stating that the demand has c^ftsed; and 
thus gain advantage to the nation. 

'^ 8th. If the Russians should raise the price of any article that 
was scarce, no one should buy anything for (me month. If they 
oomphdn to us, we will tell them that the trade must be stopped. 

^'9th. Tell the Russians that the quantity of goods on hand is 
much less than it really is; and likewise tdl them, that China 
has no silk or cotton to mspose of. 

'' 10th. No license will be granted to trade at Eiackta, unless the 
merchant is able to write and speak the Russian language; and 
that will prevent the necessity of the Russian acquiring a know- 
ledge of the Chinese; and thus preserve the secrets of trade and 
the policy of government. 

'' 11th. Treat the Russians with politeness on all occasions, and 
even show them acts of hospitality ; whidi will enable you the bet- 
ter to learn how their country is governed. But on no account 
sleep in the same house with them. 

" 13th. No merchant to transact business for one year after his ar- 
rival at Kiackta ; but for that period to learn thoroughly all the 
secrets of the trade, and thus prevent mistakes. 

f' 18th. Prohibits gold, silver, copper, and iron, from being ex- 
changed with Russia. 



SURVBILLANCB AND BBSPOK9IBILITY. 1B9 

'' 14tli. Proscribes tlie introduction of all artides of luxury, wine, 
spirits/^ &c. 

There are various punishments awarded for a violation of an j of 
the above rules. For disclosing the nature of ^he above instructions 
to the Russians, death, or banishment for life ; for lesser crimes, 
mistakes, ftc., to pull the grain boats five years, i. e. the galleys. 

The trade of the interior of China, tiie prices, demand, &c., are 
to be kept a profound secret. 

The whole government is a system of strict surveillance and uni- 
versal responsibility, approaching to the greatest military despotism. 
The man who knows it is almost impossible to escape, (except by 
entire seclusion), the emissaries of the government, will be cautious 
of (lending the laws of his country ; for if he himself should 
escape, his family will suffer for his offence, and if he can venture 
home, it is most likely his property will be in the possession of 
the cheers of the government, or of neighbours who feel secure 
in plundering him. 

The Emperor is not only sole head of the Chinese constitution, 
\0A is conndered to be the '^ Teen Tsze^^ the Bon of Heaven. It is 
in unison with these high notions, that they refuse to negotiate with 
the barbarians until oompelled by a superior power, when it is 
thought Heaven wills it. 

l%e absolute power which the Emperor possesses, he arms his 
deputies with, to be exercised by them in their various offices : 
each being responsible only to his superior officer. The law has 
appointed censors over the actions of the Emperor, but he need not 
regard them : in China all tyranny is so well doked as to be 
«tyled paternal authority. 

The duties to be observed by the Emperors are strictly considered 
to be in unison with Confudus and his most celebrated disdples, 
as given in their famed works, the Five Classics and Four Books. 

The first distinction of castes is between natives and alimis, which 
latter dass includes ail the mountaineers, and other tribes throughout 
the empire; the fiimilies that live in boats, also fishermen in the 
maritime provinces : these are subject to laws that do not affect 
natives. The second distinction is between the conquered and the 
conqu^ors, i.e. Chinese and Tartars : the object of this distinction 
is to put a stop to intermarriages, so as to prevent amalgamation 
between the two races* 

The third distinction is that every native can have slaves, whose 
children are likewise slaves, under certain restrictions } free-born 
people are often condemned for their crimes to slavery. 

All the people are divided into two classes, the mean and 
honourable : the latter loses its privileges should they marry with 
the former, who are comprised of people of the lowest grade ! 
slaves, policemen, stage-players, and jugglers ; and these for three 
generations are required to foUow some honourable and useful 



140 .'CA8TXS.*— B7Jf£CT OV CBREKOKIAL. 

emplojniient to work out their liberty. Every ttdng to perpetakte 
distinction is done most artfully. 

' One of the inevitable resialts tif the system is the spirit of 
falsehood^ and want* of oandour which their ceremonies univer- 
sally infose. The Emperor's whole study is to decoy or 
cajole his people; and he, in return, is cajoled by his mi- 
nisters. It is scarcely necessary in China to ask a favour, for it is 
sure to be promised, without the lightest idea of fulfilment. 
The advantage attending this profusicm of promiaes is, that they 
can be estimated at their real value. 

It is truly observed, that at one time the government adopts 
language pregnant with dirrful impoai; ; and the next, if encountered 
by a show of resistance, sinks into the most ignominious submission, 
and resorts to ridiculous subterfuges, in order to escape from the 
consequence of its own folly and audacity. 

The people, particularly those of the better class, are very desirous 
of associating with the English, but their Tartar rulers take every 
possible means to prevent such association ; the most opprobrious 
epithets are heaped <m the English, and placards are posted on the 
walls at night accusing them of odious crimes ; in oUier instances 
edicts are issued as the following, entitled : — 

'* Regulations for preventing the fkmiliar int^oonrse of natives 
and foreigners. The houses and lanes in the ndi^^xbourhood of the 
foreign factories, (Canton), are the resort of native toraitors ; these 
must be banished, to prevent an intimate connexion growing up 
between the natives and the barbarians. The Foo and Heen 
oaagistrates are to inspect the said places in person. All the doors 
of the foreign factories at the back are to. be immediately bloeked 
tip. The square in the front is to be enclosed. The passages 
through all the streets near the fisctories are to be cut off and 
never again opened, and the walls built higher and thicker. It 
will be proper to have one thoroughfiure, with a gate, and a miHtary 
sentineL But the shops in New China^stneet are so intimately 
isonnected with foreigners, that they suspend signboards with 
foreign characters written on them j this is in opposition to the 
law^ a»d must be put a stop to for ever. The private houses must 
be also, closed, and woe to all those who disobey, and let proda^ 
jQQations be issued appointing a time to sweep away these traitors I V^ 

There are various proofs in the Peking Qazettes of the diaoigani- 
«ation that is in progress, and the loose and corrupt system of 
government in the provinces. 

The Lieut.-govemor of Che-iKeang, aent a memorial to his 
ixkAJesty, which stated that a numerous band of robbers infested 
the provinee of Hoonan. They grew so bold that noiliing could 
ptop their marauding spirit. He represented them, as disbanded 
militia, who during th^ war with the English, fought under the 
banners of their country,, and being . out of employment," and 
unable to earn a living, have betaken themselves to these^ wicked 



PHOORESS OF i>l80B6ANIZATI02f. 141 

oourses. Cho-piitg-te^^ a mimster of state^ recently 'metno-*' 
rialized the throne, respecting the state of the Peking police. The' 
memorial states, that the residence of his Majesty is infested mth 
robhers, who have been banished from other-provinces, and have 
not only taken up their residence, but actually bought bousetf, and 
are living in a most splendid manner on the produce of their 
booty. Debts and defalcations are numerous in Keangse; several: 
thousand taels are owing from three districts. In the province of 
Chih-li, a magistrate is a defaulter to the extent of 12,000 taels. 1 
A defaulter, in Honau, died,^ while being conveyed to Peking : his 
property war put unde^ seal. The undermentioned extracts from 
the Peking Gazette, cimveys frirther information to the internal 
state of Chma. In 18^7, Peking was in a deplorable state f 
plu£.dering and murder were frequent in daylight, without 
detection; ten carts laden with grain were taken from legates 
of the city. In 1827, extraordinary powers were given to the 
Govarnor of Shan-tung; the banditti wa?e so numerous, and the 
expenses so great, that the emperor empowered him to inflict 
summaiy punishment, without esamisiing witaesses. In }829> the: 
hills in Che-Eeang which protect rebels, were ordered to be set fire 
to in order to bum the grass and brush wood ; thirteen of the 
sddiers were consumed in the performance of this duty. The 
banditti who inhabit the borders of Kwang-tung (Canton), and 
Kwangse provinces, appear to be the most troublesomo. The 
governor memoralisied the present Emperor, that the banditti 
in his jurisdiction might not be included in the act of grace on, 
the occasion of his accession. The same year nearly 500 of a. 
banditti were taken, within 200 miles of Canton, on the eastern side. 

In 1827, the governor of Canton, requested the emperor to be*^ 
stow rewards on the troops, as they had routed the banditti on the 
southern hills^ and taken 200 of the gang. In 1828, a reward of 1000 
dollars was offered for the apprehension of a banditti leader, and 
3,000 for another. The judge of Canton, this year complains that 
he eannot etear the court of the number of cases. After a long 
sitting, he states that there were of undecided eases for robbery 
430, which involve upwards of 2000 who are not yet taken, and 
the number is daily increasmg. In 1829 the governor obtained 
rewiurds for the military from the Emperor, for their suocessfiil 
exertions^ in the north aad east of the province, where 300 bandits 
were captured* 

In the vicinity of Canton^ Whampoa, and Macao, poor people 
who cultivate land on the banks of the rivers, are frequently 
plundered of all they possess, untess they take out a ticket of 
security from a bancUtti, which protects them for a certain time. 
Among fishermen along the coast a similar tax is imposed. The^ 
Gazette denounces the^et practices, and that is all tiiat is heard of 
them. 

In 1830, the number and character of the robberies in Canton 



14it aOBBBEIES AND RIDNAPPIK&. 

were of the worst kind. Government offices and temples wefe 
violated^ and the robbers mustered in bands of from 800 to 600 
each. The number captured in three months of this year in 
Canton^ was 46T. Kidnappers are never pursued^ or if so tibey are 
sure to put their captives to death. The sacred palace of the 
emperor^ at Yuenmingyuen, was lately plundered, although well 
guarded by day and night. His Majes^ complained of ^' the want 
of respect that is apparent, in latter years, as every thing belong- 
ing to his majesty should be respected with awe and veneration.^' 

On any occasion of insurrection or tumultuous disturbances, 
no mercy is shewn by the military. A recent r^ott from the 
Commander-in-chief of Formosa, states, that the neighbourhood of 
Taewan, (the capital of Formosa), is infested with a disorderly and 
rebellious gang, who openly defy the authorities. About tiurty 
cril tiiese had be^i taken prisoners, this has caiwed a disturbance in 
which two Chinese soldiers have lost their lives. To quell the 
insurrection 1000 soldiers were marched to the place, whilst the 
treasury furnished 1800 taels to defray the expense. In the first 
engagement ninety prisoners were taken, and th^ heads instantly 
out off. In a second engagement the commander reports, that he 
dispatched about 800 hetuis. The loss on the parts of the victors 
was txifling. The total killed and wounded, slain in battle, was 
upwards of 1000: from 600 to 600 were beheaded, sixty-nine 
decapitated, sixteen taken alive, and 100 stand of arms. These 
robbers being completely exterminated, all is again quiet. The 
only answer made to this report, was " the impenal will has been 
recorded.^^ 

The rebellion among the Mohammedans in Turkestan, which 
broke out in the year 1826, excited great alarm throughout the 
empire, as it was well known that the Mohammedans beyond the 
frontiers would join' them. The Booriats of Kokan supported 
the rebel chief; and after his death made an entry into Cashgar, 
but were defeated by the Chinese. 

In 1818, a numerous tribe, called Elucth, who inhabit the 
borders of the province of Szechuen and Shense, committed 
dreadful plunder* on the inhabitants. The governor of the pro- 
vince reported, that he had defeated them and taken several 
hundred captives. When the expenses of this insurrection were 
applied for, the Emperor ordered that the governor should pay it 
himself. The consequence was that he committed suicide. 

A fierce and bold race of mountaineers, called Lolo, inhabit a 
country lying between the provinces of Szechuen and Yunnan 
and the British territory in Assam ; they are supposed to be the 
Shans. The Peking Oazeite, of 1810, declared the rewards to the 
officers, who defeated these rebels, which was all the public ev^ 
heard. An express . travelling 600 le a-day (168 miles) an* 
nounced the victory. 
. It appears from the Peking Gazette, of the years 1826, 1828, 



FRONTIER INCURSIONS AND RBBELLIONS. 143 

1830^ and 1834^ that the Chinese military was employed in qnelling 
insurrections that broke out on the western frontier of Yunnan. 
The borderers on the Burman frontier were also defeated^ and 
many prisoners taken in 1830. 

Tlie goTemor of Yunnan memorialized the Emperor against a re- 
duction of his military forces, which amounted to 33,970 ; all of 
which he stated to be fully employed in keeping off a tribe called 
Tsingke. In 1832, the envoy from Tibet to Peking was plundered 
and sererely beaten, on the borders of the province of Szechuen. 
The tribe called Meenpoh, about this time, plundered and burnt 
upwards of twenty villages. The most daring tribes inhabit the 
country southward of the Yellow River, which, when frozen over, 
they cross, carry all before them, and plunder the Mongol 
pastoral tribes. The complaints were so numerous that the 
authorities sent upwards of 3,000 troops after them, and recovered 
80,000 head of cattle, with seventeen of ike ringleaders, who were 
beheaded. 

The hill tribes within several of the western provinces, eause 
even more expense and trouble to the authorities than the more 
distant rebels ; there are upwards of eighty different tribes. The 
rebellion of 1832 cost 2,100,000 taels, and the Chinese army lost 
10,000 men. The peasantry dread the imperial troops as much a» 
they do the robbers ; hence the following instructions to the sol^ 
diers to preserve honest and orderly habits by Yu, one of the Com-* 
manders-in-chief, which read well, but are not ob^ed. 

'' Every man derives his nature from heaven, and from infancy 
to manhood none are destitute of virtue. The virtuous cherish it 
in their hearts, while the exercise of it towards a prince is called 
loyalty, and towards a parent filial piety. That you should while 
at home exercise reverence towards your parents, and fraternal 
affection towards your brethren, you very well know. The Sacred 
Edict has widely promulgated and reiterated in your hearing, that 
scholars and husbandmen, mechanics and tradesmen, by attending 
. to the appropriate duties of their calling, will secure a reputation, 
and surely reap their reward. 

" The favors we receive from others ought never to be forgotten* 
Here allow me to introduce a similitude. Suppose you were on a 
long journey and your pocket-money were expended, and you 
found yourself destitute, far from home, without friends, and 
perishing from want. Then suppose a man should give you a few 
hundred cash to preserve your life. Should j'ou ever afterward see 
this man, ought you to make any expression of gratitude for his 
mercy ? And, if you made no returns for his kindness, would you 
not justly be considered a forgetful and an ungrateful creature, 
and thus exhibit no goodness of heart ? It is a common saying, 
if we receive from others a favor, like a drop of water, the return 
should be like an overflowing fountain. 



144 IV^TBUCViOtHI TO PBJE8BRVS Oft09&» 

^ ^' Now you, BOldierSj have received favors firom your soverdgn; 
wUch it is entremely difficult for you ever to repay. It is be* 
eoming you, as you regularly enter the cantonment to receive your 
rations and monthly pay, to remember that all you have for thi^ 
support of your lives, the nourishment of your family, and the 
offerings to your ancestors, is the result of your sovereign's com- 
paasion, whose mercy is higher than the heavens and extaisive as- 
the eaith ; therefore loyalty is a sentiment that should be eng;Favea 
on your hearts. As yon receive liberally of the favors of your 
sovereign, it is becommg you, by a careful and diligent attexiiaon 
to your appropriate duties, to promote the peace of the land, by. 
exterminating thieves and robbers, and avoid disturbing or dis- 
tressing the people. Thus you may respond to the distinguished, 
ftyors of your sovereign, and youraelves advance in the road of 
piEomoAian, from the infantry to the cavalry, and then to official. 
stations^ with increasing honors and emolument. This is in time. 
of peace; but should there be a national disturbance, and you are, 
seat out m regular file, and on seeing the foe, advance bravely 
before him and slay the enemy, you thus repay the kindness ^ 
your sovereign. But if, on seeing the enemy, you cherish un- 
woitl^ fears and do not advance, you prove yourself ungrateful 
and'Unirorthy creatures, and of the same class with pirates^ and 
aU. men will be justified in slaying yoi;i. 

•^ '' You may consider that from ancient times till now, the wise ' 
and the brave have been prosperous and honored, and for this, 
reasoa-^that with a true heart they destroyed the enemy. But 
those who fear to die cannot thus avoid death ; suppose they shut 
themselves up within their own doors and di|B of disease, — ^are they 
not then dead ? But if you would not deserve death, take your , 
sword and rush amidst a thousand or ten thousand men, bran- . 
diahing your weapon and speeding your horse, and you canuot die. 
A disdbiarge of your appropriate duties aud the subjugation of the 
enemy, all depends upon your loyalty and bravery, and in this way 
alone you can preserve the laws and save your lives. 

" In time of peace, while remaining in your cantonments, it is . 
expected that you be quietly employed in your customary duties, 
not quarrellix^ with each other : and when you go out, whether it 
be for taking thieves or for war, as you meet the people you should 
remember, that your food and salary are the result of their labor. 
Therefore, carefully endeavour to project them. Do not frighten 
and annoy them; but when you see among them old persons, 
isegard them as you would your own father and mother; and when. 
yon see young persons, treat them as you would a brother or 
suiter. Do not think, because you spend your strength in the 
spgvigeo f yo ur Emperor, that you have a right to defraud the.. 
people. "Wl^en going abroad do not compel the coolies to bear, 
your burdens, without a suitable compensation; and as you pass, 
along the road, do not rob the gardens of their vegetables and 



SOLDIERS NOT TO ABUSE THE PEOPLE. 145 

'frcfits. Danotpassionatdly abuse <<he people^ and, relyii;^ on your 
' iMimbers^ msiilt the defenodess. <j&lH)uld;all respond, to the voice 
^ of 'oneinanj aaddeireral tens 6fyoiK unite ia beating' one man, and 
if^ perchance he is killed^ do not think that you will, pass unde- 
'- tec^d. Your feUow-soldiers, ' lest they- should be implicated^ will 
make known who «was the mover of the dd^tusbanoe^ and when 
'this is known by the people^ they will represent the. ease to the 
' propei^ autiicHrity; who will instttolte^ an investigation^ and the cor- 
'-irobtiivting testimony of soldiers 'aiid paoide will a so- clearly esta- 
blish your guilt; that even jFour friends and vdations will not dfiiTe 
deny it. Such will then be judged according to laWi^and beheaded^ 
' and your theadttsuspeiided by the wayside to the gase of the muhi- 
ttude. These things you all understand. 

''^You remember that during the revolt of Formosa, in the 12th 
'''year of his Imperial Majesty's reign, a.d. 1832, the soldiers from 
' C%jeki&gg^ Honin, and Sz'chuen refiised topay the coolies for bearing 
' their' burdi»i», and that a dispute arose and Ufe was lost ; also, that 
• ^^tdldren were kidnapped^ and the office of the. salt merchant was 
i^plundea^d : when i;heser things < were beyond . all endurance, they 
were represented to the high provincial officers, who reported it to 
his majesty ;r and an imperisl edict was issued; and, after the 
necessary investigation, the offenders were delivered down to be 
' punished according to law. These things; are for your admonition. 
'Therefore, do not trust in your numbers or the fallacious hope of 
escape, for your commanding officers will surely understand and 
' make known your conduct ; also your comrades, for fear of being 
themselves implicated, will disclose the matter^ and you cannot 
' efeica^e punidiment. From ancient times till now, the laws con- 
cerumg soldiers have been very rigid. On a former occasion a 
' soldier stole aman's v^etables, and he was put to death for it. 
'-*'Now you think that a vegetable is worth but a few cash ; — 
why need a man fear to take it ? Man is prone to imitate bad 
example f and 'if he can take a vegetable, he Will take something 
else, and soon it will become habitual; and the people of the 
country will cease to fear thieves and pirates, from their greater 
dfead of the soldiers. Ilius the anger of the people would lead 
' them to call upon the gods for vengeance, and you will incur their 
wrath, instead of securing their aid, in time of battle. • Think you, 
when engaged in battle, should one man draw back, would not all 
follow his example and flee, and tKe foe pursue after them to the 
destruction of all ? The laws concerning soldiers are extremely 
severe. The good man constantly observes the customs, and dares 
not contend with his associates. . He regards his own life as pre- 
cious, and trembles lest by quarrelling with another he should 
accidentally kill him, when he would pay for it by the l^ss of Jiis 
' own life. If he escape death, he is banished, and thus precluded 
for ever from all honor and profit. 

h 



146 VALUE OF TRUTH AND RIGHTEOUSNESS. 

'^ Andently^ theie was a man by the name of Han Sin. who 
compelled a thief to pass between his legs ; still he dared not 
wrangle. According to the saying, 'The brave act like tigers, and 
not hke mice/ 

'' If for a few years there should be peace, and, instead of going 
to war, yon all remain at home, as good men, I will teach yon what 
to do, namely, — practice yourselves in your duties, that you mi^ 
be able to protect yourselves and your families, — ^thus exhibiting 
truth and righteousness. Every thing in heaven and earth is 
comprehended in these two terms, — truth and righteousness. They 
are to men what the root is to the tree. Where then is truth ? 
To speak a word to-day, and follow it ever afterwards ; not pointing 
to the east, then going to the west; not saying that you have what 
you have not ; not changing to suit your own convenience ; — if you 
speak and act thus, all men will believe you. This is what is called 
h^th. What is righteousness ? For each to attend to his business 
and practice himself in his appropriate duties; — ^re^ding his 
officers as he regards his parents, and his comrades as his brethren, 
avoiding ingratitude and a violation of the laws ; — this is what is 
GBileA rigUemtsness. If a man have no truth, but is deceitful and 
false, tiwDL there is nothing too bad for him to do, and even his 
father and mother, and wife and children, will see that he is a bad 
man* An unrighteous man in the twinkling of an eye becomes 
ungrateM. Therefore truth and righteousness are of the first 
importance. 

''Again, it is easy to move the mind of the ignorant* This you 
wfll understand by observing a play. Suppose the actor, in al- 
luding to the ancients, should exhibit loyalty and filial piety. The 
audience, looking at the faithful minister or dutiful child exposed 
to ten thousand ills, still maintaining his integrity, and, in every 
temptetion to impropriety and unrighteousness, sternly adhering to 
truth and uprightness. Therefore, the gods of heaven and earth 
will protect him in the field of battle, and crown him with laurels 
of victory,*-*-bless him with a blooming wife and honorable chil- 
dren, and perpetuate his name to a thousand generations. But 
how often is it that stupid men frequent the plays, desiring only 
to wstiiess impure and incorrect exhibitions, and look upon scenes 
cticulated to foster a contentious spirit. You may know firom the 
expression oi their countenances, that such, if they are not already 
adepts m the practice of vice, will soon learn to be; for such 
things are very shallow, and easily learned. 

*^ Here allow me to introduce the case of Sung Eliang, a famous 
robber, whose name is recorded in the Shui Hu, and history in- 
forms us that he was at the head of thirty-six giantlike insurgents. 
Qeneial Chang Suye, of Hwuihai, at one time called out his men 
to exterminate them, but they surrendered and swore allegiance to 
theor sovereign. Sung Kiang lived about the middle of the Sung 
dynasty. He was a man of superior natural talents; and at length 



DUTIES OF SOLBIBBS IN PBACE. 147 

became a faithfal subject and a queller of rebellion^ and promoter 
of peace within th^ foni' seas (CMna), and was praised by sue* 
ceeding generations. Stilly though he became a faithful subject 
and distinguished patriot^ bj all his good deeds he could not erase 
from history the record that he was once a robber. Moreover, the 
works of fiction have misrepresented the number of his colleagues, 
and endeavored to make it appear that he acted not for gain, but 
fof honor ; thus tempting the age, blinding the eyes of the people, 
and injuring the hearts of men in no small degree. In the same 
way, novels have so represented the character of the robbers of 
Wa Kang, that indiscriminating minds are led to admire their 
valor ; not thinking that they were without prince or father, and 
that they thus treated with contempt their own body and their 
own parents ; not thinking that true courage consists in speaking 
with propriety and acting righteously, in not obscuring the laws of 
heaven, or throwing aWay conscience, even if it should be at the 
hazard of life. • 

"The fact is, you cannot I'ely dn whit novels say; for Sung 
Kiang was no better than Tai Wu tad Mauting (notcmona rob- 
bers). You know that in secret societies, whei^ the members are 
sworn to protect each other, the greater guilt rests on the head 
man, and his guilt is increased in proportion to the increase of the 
numbers under him. For such proceedings they surely will be 
apprehended and punished, when repentance will be unavailing. 

"Therefore you, soldiers, ought carefully and unceas^in^y to 
follow truth and righteousness, filial piety and loyalty. For if you 
carefully practice yonr own tactics, steid when at home respect your 
parents^ love your brethren, and attend to your own business, and, 
when sent for the apprehension of pirates, you jwove faithful to 
your trust ; in time of war not opjyressing the people, and mutually 
admonishing each other to walk in the path of virtue ; and if you 
bravely contend for your friends and relations, and also the 
rulers of the land, the gods will secretly protect you wherever 
you go. But if you do not carefully practice your tactics, and 
attend to your own business ; when set after robbers^ if you do 
not face the foe; — ^such conduct cannot be endured by the justice 
of the laws, or the mercy of the gods. 

" Finally, strive to familiarise yourself with your own business, 
. and mutttsJly instruct and assist each other. In giving these 
instructions, your general has not employed a mysterious style and 
unintelligible terms, but simple and every ^day language ; so plain 
that it may be easily understood, even by those who cannot read. 
Now if these principles of your nature (truth and righteousness) 
be established, you may travel to the ends of the earth without 
danger of harm ; and is it not a matter to be desired, that the 
ofiicers and soldiers, princes and people, should dwell together in 
peace and happiness 1" 

The feebleness of the Tartar government is well illustrated by 

l2 



148 STRBNOTH OF THIS FIBATEB. 

the constant piracy along the whole coast of China. Pirates in 
China are divided into two classes^ sea robbers^ and water or rirer 
robbers. Chaouchoo-foo^ and the neighbouring proyinoe of 
Foo-keenj appear to be the stronghold of both classes^ particularly 
during the seasons of distress^ as then it is known that manj join 
them for want of employment. Dr. Outzlaff, who visited many 
parts of the coast of China^ in 1831j describes the social state there 
as wretched in the extreme. 

The duty of the Chinese navy^ is supposed to be for the protection 
of maritime commerce^ and a few observations on its efficacy^ will 
show how far it answers that purpose. The governor of Keangnan 
reported^ in 1818^ that he found great difficulty in procuring timber 
to build twelve junks, for the coast of Shan-tung. The Governor of 
Canton reports^ in 1820^ that ninety vessels'were. disabled this 
year^ and forty more in the succeeding year. In 1838^ 100,000 
taels were voted to build ten junks, under the direction of <^e 
OoVemor of Canton. The admiral received private inform^on, 
that the new junks were put together with wooden bolts ; on psm^^ 
nation it was found to be so. At Nangaou, which is the MtK>nd 
naval station of Canton, and bordering on Foo*keen, (the staronghold 
of pirates), and the residence of an admiral, with a force of 6000 
men,^-Messr8. Lindsay and Outzlaff found eight small junks in 
1883. .. 

Mr. Glasspole, who was taken prisoner by the Chinese pirates, 
together with seven of his men, in 1809, calculated their whole 
fhroeto consist of 70,000 men, navigating 800 large vessels, and 
1000 smaller ones, including their row-boats. The united forc^ of 
the Chinese navy, aided by vessels belonging to the Portugueso of 
Macao, Consisting of upwards of 100 sail, were tofially unable to 
make the least impression on the pirate band. Mr. Olasspole vai 
with them nearly three months, and was compelled, along with his 
men, to enter into many engagements with them during that time, 
and consequently had a good opportunitv of calculating their 
forces. It was not until division appeared between the . rival com- 
manders, that the imperial government proposed a general pardon, 
and employment to those who would surrender. JLvlo Patao, 
commander of the black squadron, surrendered and entered into 
terms for all his followers, and subsequently found employment in 
Peking. Paoer, the admiral of the red flag, very soon surrendered 
. on the same terms, and he and many of his forces were employed 
by the government in hunting their former associates. Ever since, 
every effort has been made to prevent their uniting in so strong a 
body, but they are still numerous. 

In 1881, the Peking Gazette contained a proclamation, against 

allowing in future, tea to be conveyed to the Northern Provinces 

by sea, as his Majesty had been informed that the tea-dealers 

-carry with them powder, to supply and pacify the pirates. The 

Gt>vemor of Canton, in 1829, issued a proclamation against the 



SALE OF PUBLIC OFFICES. 149 

Lintiii: smugglers^ who ' havf boocts with from thirty to forty oars^ 
who when smaggling fails^ turn pirates, carry fire arms^ aud even 
fire on the revenue cutters of the government. 

In a representation made to the emperor in 1830^ from the 
Governor of Che-Keang, it is stated that the officers of the coast 
permitted pirates to do as they wished, that murder and phinder 
was an occurrence of every day; — ^the emperor in answer, deprived 
the officers of their cutters for three months, during which time 
they were to have all the pirates made prisoners, or failing therein 
to be dismissed. 

The Peking Gazette of August, 1831, has a peremptory order 
from the Emperor, concerning the nine pirates who were taken for 
the plunder of Howqua^s fort ; he desires that they be put to torture, 
in order to discover the remainder. A fleet of Cochin China 
pirates was discovered this year, which consisted of ninety sail. 

One of the most remarkable indications of decay in the emfore, 
and of generd^ corruption^ is the sale of offices, which has recently 
increased to a great extent, and is at total variance with the 
literary examinations which had hitherto been the basis of official 
employment, and powerful means of keeping the empire consoli* 
dated and tranquil. 

183S. A memorial to the emperor, from Sin Tsung-vih, head 
master of the literati in Shanting province, and Yuen-Seen^ the 
censor of Yun-nau province, in 1822, is as follows : — 

We have heard that the sale of high offices originated under the 
Han dynasty; but the disgrace of selling office under the pre- 
sent is of greater enormity than theirs. The sums procured under 
the Han dynasty were applied to the public service, but our 
dynasty puts the whole of such revenues into its private purse. 

'' Our dynasty commenced the sale of office, in*1637, Teentsung's 
tenth year, to supply money for the use of the state, and to collect 
human talent ; for many of our sages arose from fish and salt 
markets, and those who bought office, made up a portion of talent 
nnsupplied by those who obtained office by literary merit. But 
it was ordered by imperial authority, that the literary should have 
the majority in the proportion of eleven to eight. 

'' But at the present time^ there are unemployed by government 
more than 15,000, who have obtained the third degree, (tsin-sze), 
and near 30,000 of the second degree, (ken-jin), and those that 
are waiting i^o be employed were made eligible thirty years ago. 
The design of your Majesty^s heart is to give age to their talent, 
and prepare them for service. 

** AlloVingthem to be thirty years of age when they obtain the 
degree of ken-jin, and then wait thirty years more, they are then 
generally pointed out as feeble and stupid, and thus the learned 
will ultimately be excluded from office. 

■' ''The buyers of office are both young and have abundance of 
money, and are thus put over everybody's head, and pointed out 



150 QUALIFICATION POH 07FICE, 

as possessing talents. The qualifications for graduates are most 
rigorous. A candidi^te must state Ms descent for tliree genera* 
tions back; also procure five graduates to enter into bonds of 
security. The purchaser of office has nothing to do but pay his 
money, and there is his oflice ; and governors become bis sureties. 
Thus priests^ who are prohibited^ and actual highwaymeUi are 
daily promoted to office. When in authority they are cruel 
oppressors^ they terrify the people^ and their superiors point them 
out as possessing decision. Of late none of them have been 
impeached, and their numbers are unknown. When this docu- 
ment reaches the privy council, they will say, the resources of the 
country are inadequate, an4 thereby darkly insinuate their 
slanderous asperMons; ^e have, therefore, m^^ a calculation. 
In the third year of Keaklng a banditti, in Sze-Chuen, and two 
other provinces, caused fin insurrection, ^nd the sale of ofi^ces 
procured 70,000 taels, (about £^,000.) In the eleventh year of 
his reign, a rebellion broke out in Yun-nan, and the sole of offices 
realized 120,000 taels; the 19th year 60,000 taels; thus the 
whole amount for twenty years, make but a few hundred thousand 
taels. Now if the expenses of imperial honors were once removed, 
it would save as much in one ye^> as the sal^ of ofjcei^ has pro« 
dnced in ten, 

''The expenses oi flowers and rtrnge at the imperial harem is 
annually 100,000 taels. The salaries at the harem for waiting- 
boys is 120,000 taels. The gardens of Yueoming cost more than 
200,000 taels. The establishment at Jeho, costs 480,0Q0 taek. 
The other expenses of these gardens for salaries to great officers^ is 
160^000 taels ; and there are conferred in largesses on the women 
of these gardens 250,000 taels. If these few items were abolished, 
talent might be brought to the service of the country, and the wealth 
of tJie people be secured. 

'' We find in the provinces, irom governor, lieutenant-governors, 
down to the village magistrates, all combine to gain their purpose 
by hiding the truth from the Emperor. 

'* Now for the tricks played by the great salt officers, they are 
numerous. Each bag of salt supplied to the emperor weighs 
sixty catties, charged 500 cash per bi^ ; but the sidt supplied to 
the people only weighs eight catties at the same chai^e^ 

'' If your majesty deem this statement to be right, and will act 
thereon in the government, the army, the nation, and the poor people 
will have cause of gladness of heart. Should we be iul^ected to the 
operation of the hatchet, or ewffer death in the boiling caldron, we shall 
not decline it" 

His majesty's reply : 

'' The report of Yuen-seen and his colleague is extremely lucid, 
and shows them to be faithful statesmen, who are grieved for the 
state of their country, and who have the spirit of the great states- 



PAIGES OF OFFICE. 151 

men of antiquity. Since tlie days of Yun-Chawwantoo, 221 b.c. 
such men have not appeared. 

" TAOUKWANG, (Feby 22, a.d. 1822.)" 

Nothing, however, was done, on the 'Uucid and faithful," 
Import. 

. The sale of. civil and military offices, in 1826, produced 
6,000,000 of taels. The privilege is only granted for one year at a 
time ; but it was renewed 1828 and 1829. 

The Peking Gazette for January, 1831, announces that two 
sons of Howquahave been promoted, one created ken-jeh hy patent^ 
for having one year previously subscribed 36,000 taels, the other 
son had contributed 100,000 taels towards the war in Tartary, 
for which he was made a director of the salt monopoly. 

The literary chancellor of the province of Keang-se, in 1828, 
having been reported to the emperor as guilty of selling degrees ; 
tYTo special commissioners were dispatched to his house, who 
discovered 400,000 taels, and to save any examination, he was 
given an opportunity to commit suicide. 

The price of a first degree, is said to cost 7000 or 8,000 dollars ; 
a substitute can be had on much less terms, who does not regard 
the punishment. At an investigation which was held in Peking, 
in 1832, six writers were ordered for execution for forging diplomas. 
An officer, in the Board of Revenue, in Peking, was discovered to 
have sold 20,000 diplomas of rank. 

The imperial Court Calendar gives the number of provincial 
offideriA as foUows :-^Goveniors, ll ; fooyuens, 15 ; treasurers, 19; 
judges, 18; chancellors, 17; magistrfites of cities of the first order, 
184; of cities of the second order, 212, and of the third, 1305 : 
total, 1781. Acc(»rding to law, all these officers must be changed 
every third year, and they must not fill a similar office in the province 
a second time; this principle carried out would require 35,620 
great officers to fill all these appointmeuts dtiring sixty years. 
The extent of bribery and corruption, and the member of offices 
sold, may, therefore, be fairly inferred as very great. 

PoHce ofPeHng, — ^The police of Pe]dng are oQ]|iposed of part of 
lie Chinese infantry, belonging to the regular troops ; thpy keep a 
very strict surveillance over the city, and they are constantly in the 
streets with swords at their sides, and whips in their hands, ready 
to strike any one who would create a confusion. They take care 
to have the streets kept clean, and will put th^ir hands to it them- 
selves in case of necessity ; they keep watch during the night, and 
ftltow no one to go through the streets, except with lanterns, and 
then only on very urgent business — such as to call a physician, &c. 
They even question those who may be charged with missions to the 
Emperor, and all must give satisfactory answers ; if not, they have a 
right to arrest them. The officers of the guard aare bound to be 
extremely vigilant with respect to the men under their command, 



162 OVTl£« OF THE POLICB. 

THe slightest'n^Ugenoeiroidd bepfBOidied^aiikd the oftcars-caskiersd 
on the following da^. 

One of their principal duties is to prevent a fisanine in the city. 
In the city as well as the suburbs there are large granaries, where 
rice' is 'kept to provide against- scavee seasons. The regulations- are 
very honestly executed in the vicinity of the court, but not so in 
provinces ; which oocursr through the negl^moe of the maDLdarins* 
Besides these public stores, there are large granaries of the Bmperor 
which are fiUed with wheat> and pulse, and fbdder> for the beasts 
of burden. 

The fbllowing edict against forestallers- of rice, indicates' the 
anxiety of the government to maintain alow price for food :-^ 

" Keying of the imperial house, govemor^general of Kwang^tung 
and Kwang-Bi, a director of the board of war, vioO'-high chancellor 
and' guaardian of the heir apparent, minister and oommissioner ex* 
traoiSinaiy, &c., issues a severe prohibition against storing rice £rom 
fear of famine. Whereas it is important thid^riee should be in the 
market, to stop it is against the law. The population of Kwaag* 
tung is great, and its produce is too^ little, and the support of the 
people fiJWays depends- upon the rice of Kwang-si, which the mer- 
chants bring. But now the price* of rice in Gant<m rises every day, 
and' it has been found out that there are some villains and dissolute 
persons stirring up the people, and* saying that in the year Ping-woo^ 
and Tin-wi in the reign of Kin^lung there was a famine, and nev 
this year is Ping-woo again, and we should keep our rice for a good 
market. These villains hinder the rice-boats from commg, and 
squeeze them in every way aecormng to their wishes, and the mer- 
chants stop their trade ; and this causes the want of rice among 
the people. But these men surely do not know the rainy season 
of the last year Yih-sze came exactly in time, and it enriched the 
earth very much, and when compaj>ed with the Yih-sze year in the 
reign of ELui-lung it is very different, and I believe, when the spring 
comes we shall have fine rains. If those villains still daie to keqp 
back the rice, seeking profit, the law cannot suffer them, imd their 
policy must be thwarted, so that the merchants may trade again, 
and the people have food* Besides commanding the governor of 
Kwang-si to renew his former edict, I will command all the officers 
of the districts through which the merchants of Kwang-tung must 
pass in trading with Kwang-si, to issue proclamations, so as to let 
all people know, that after this no man should store up rice for the 
fear of famine. If any merchants firom Kwang*tung go to Kwa]ig«ti 

* ** The ChineM have two lets of characters ; the oae of which, called Teen-kan, 
" the celestial stems/' includes ten characters, the other set called Te-che, the " ter- 
restrial branches/' consist of twelve characters, and these characters arc applied to 
years, months, days, and hours. They have been combtacd so as to form a cycle of 
sixty ; and ' Pingwoo' is the third year in this order, and * Ting-we' the forty*iDurtfa» 
and ' Yih-sze' the forty-second. Some Chinese think that in the space of sixty years 
all former occurrences will come again, like the four seasons of the year.;— Note by 
Ashing, the translator of this edict. 



FORESTALLING OF FOOD. 153* 

to buy riee, tbey should buy, their rice freely^ and bring it to 
Kwaag*tung to sell^ and there should be no secret hindraiice of 
buying and scdling rice^ so as to raise the value of rice^ and cause. 
aD sorts of difficulties to the poor. If, after this second edict, any 
of the viUaina dare to store up their rice, seeking profit, and send 
boats along the entrances of the province to hinder and squeeze 
the merchants, the officers of their districts shall seize them, and 
bring them to trial, and punish them with heavy penalties, and 
shall not set them at liberfy. Do not disobey this special edict. 

" First month, 21st day/' (Feb. 16, 1846.) 

The police oi China are thus aptly described by one who has 
closely studied the subject. 

''With the exception of prying into families, the police are very 
vigilant. To form a proper idea of this body elect, we must consi'- 
der them to be a collection of the veiy scum of the nation^ well 
versed in all tricks, personally acquainted with thieves, robbers^ 
and gamblers, initiated in aU the mysteries of iniquity, and oftea 
partaking largely, not only of the bribes, but also in thejmctice ci 
abomination, in the very haunts of vice. The government being 
well aware df the character of this gentry, degraded them below 
the level of citizens, exduding them from entering upon the an^ 
nual e»miinE|,tions, and partaking of the general privileges ci the 
Uatioa at large. A small number receive pay from their eii^loy- 
ers, 6£ about one to two dollars per month, but by far the greater 
part serve for honour's sake, and even pay to their masters a monthly 
sum of money to bear the venerable name of Chae or Chae-yuh— 
runners. This is the most conclusive proof that their situations 
must be worth something, for otherwise we cannot imc^ne how 
they would enter upon a profession which requires incessant exer- 
cise, without the least prospect of gain. The headman of the police 
stipulates to pay a considerable sum to his master, he secures his 
many myrmidons, and takes very good care to reimburse himself 
as soon as possible. These men, therefore, are a terror to the 
nation, their very appearance sickens the people, and the guilty as 
well as the guiltles/s tremble at their sight. No police-runner will 
move a single step, unless it be with the view of making some 
money; no persons are apprehended, no measures are put into 
execution, without their being well and honorably paid for. 

How odious soever the executors of the law may appe^, they 
«iable the mandarins to know everything that passes in their juris- 
diction. Hence the ease with which criminals are discovered, and 
abuses temporarily checked, whenever it suits the views of the 
Chinese government to do so. But still the mandarins must oc- 
casionally be satisfied with becoming 'the dupes of these knaves> 
and seeing their measures frustrated by the antipathy borne to them 
by their own people. Hence it has happened^ that thiev^ have 
been harboured in the very offices frpm whence tne warrants for their 
apprehension were issued ; that contraband goods hav^been stoyr^ 



154 LAWS OF CHINA. 

away in the hall of justice ; and that even rebels have been secreted 
by the very men sent to seize them. To dispatch a rogue in order 
to catch a rogue^ may perhaps sometimes be convenient ; but rogues 
can never be trusted for any length of time^ and the best intentions 
may be defeated by making them guardians of the law. 

A peculiar feature in the police of China has lately been their 
joining of the triad society. We cannot assign any other reason 
for this step, but their wish to keep themselves free from the wrath 
of their own mandarins, for no official dares openly to attack a 
member of the brotherhood. On the other hand, this fraternity 
must have been very glad to number amongst its votaries men ac- 
quainted with all the measures of government, who could give 
them a timely warning, and screen them in case of persecution. 

Though the police is often allowed to carry on extortion and to 
harass the people for any length of time, the patience of the over- 
patient people is still occasionally worn out, and they rise in a body 
to resist their tormentors. Such proceedings are of frequent oc- 
currence, and if they happen on a large scale, the government is 
wise enough to forgive the whole, while partial resistance is punished 
with the utmost severity. The whole system is full of contradic- 
tion, there is a laxity almost amounting to lawlessness ; and again, 
a rigor exceeding all bounds and reason. The police, once know- 
ing the tone assumed by government, are careful to follow its dic- 
tates, and the* richest harvest is always the time, when the laws are 
going to be put into execution. The innocent people may be 
seized and again released, upon paying a handsome sum; the guilty 
may obtain a chance of escaping by discharging a fee ; and those 
in prison may get relief by bribing their keepers. During such 
seasons the exertions of the whole tribe are extraordinary, they 
traverse all streets, holes, and haunts, none can escape their hawks' 
eyes, and if criminals get out of danger, it is owing to the friendly 
services of their patrons, the police.^' 

Laws of China. — ^It is the general opinion that the Chinese ad* 
ministration of their laws is salutary, and that the laws are never 
changed : such is not the fact ; for the Emperor himself acknow- 
ledges, that in every department of the government there are cor- 
ruption and carelessness; that jhmine visits the land frequently, 
and that its horrors are aggravated by the rapacity of the autho- 
rities ; that conspiracies exist in all parts of the country (of men 
who are confederated into brotherhoods, whose avowed ooject is to 
upset the present Tartar dynasty), which break out occasionally 
into insurrection against the government ; that every part of the 
country is infested with banditti, who are countenanced, if not 
permitted, by the officers bf government, and we may conclude 
that such a government is held together more by the force of habit 
than through intrinsic merit. 

The penal code has been several times altered within the last 
thirty years; it consisted originally of the leuh, which for several 



rifCERTAlNTY OF CHINJ^SE CODE. 165 

ages comprised 457 heads; in the fifth year of the Emperor Yung- 
ching, it was reduced to 436. The le (novelle) or modem clauses^ 
to Bmit^ explain^ or alter the old statutes^ were first introduced 
during the Ming dynasty^ which preceded that now on the throne. 
In the first year of the present reign, they amounted to 1573. In 
the year 1829, the criminal board of Peking addressed the Emperor 
to recommend a new edition. The late emperor had ordered that 
a revised and a corrected edition should be published every five 
years ; the first being a slight revisal, the next being a thorough 
one. In consequence of the many alterations which had taken place 
during the preceding reign, the law and practice no longer agreed. 

The following year a new edition was published, (very likely 
with the request of a board,) comprising twenty-eight volumes 
octavo. The emperor then decreed, that instead of fixing ten 
years, or any other time, for the republication of the whole code, 
the supreme courts should make as few alterations as possible on 
the last code, and that only when they are obliged to do so. 

The 44th section of the penal code provides, that in cases where 
there is no law in existence precisely applicable, such cases may 
then be determined on by an accurate comparison with others 
which are already provided for, and which approach most nearly to 
those under investigation, in order to ascertain afterwards whether 
an aggravation of the offence, or a mitigation of it, was necessary. 

The uncertainty of the Chinese code is seen in the following in- 
cident, which happened about the year 1835, in the Nganhwuy 
Erovince, where six people were killed by salt smugglers. A Ma- 
ommedan, one of the murderers, plucked out the viscera, split 
the head, and threw the different parts of the body into the river : 
this man was sentenced to suffer death, after confinement (which 
generally means to have his life spared). The Emperor not only 
pensures the judge who sentenced him, but the board of Peking 
who referred it to him, because they noticed the gratuitous cruelty 
of the murderer; and orders a new law to be made to apply to such 
cases. 

In the year 1829, the Emperor enacted a law, which refers only 
to his own clan, in consequence of their litigious spirit. Of late, 
he remarks, they have constantly appeared in cases that do not 
immediately concern themselves, and have employed their privi- 
leges and influence to extort money on legal pretexts. The tenor 
of the law was, that should any member of the imperial clan appeal 
in cases that do not concern himself, and should it be found that 
it was done for the purpose of extorting money, he shall be sen- 
tenced to sixty blows with the cudgel, and forty blows with the 
bamboo : this circumstance is worthy of notice, as the 9th section of 
the code enacts, that all the subjects of the empire who are en- 
rolled under Tartarian banners, when foimd guilty of any offences 
which render them liable by the laws in general to a corporeal 
punishment, shall receive the whole number of blows specified. 



156 FfiNAL LAWS AND OFFENCES. 

but the chastisement sl^dl be inflicted with the whip iiistead of a 
bamboo. 

The provincial officers often stretch the laws without reference 
to the Emperor. The governors of provinces generally invite foo« 
yuen^ judge^ treasurer^ &c.^ to share the responsibility. Some of 
these precepts even affect life. The governor and fooyuen of Can- 
ton issued a proclamation^ in 1830^ directed against a banditti^ 
who^ under, disguise as custom-house searchers^ plundered boats 
on the river. An imperial edict of 1824i says, that holding of 
fire-arms is illegal, and fixes a period for valuing them and de- 
livering them up. And again, in 1881, fire-arms, excepting fowl- 
ing-pieces, are to be delivered up in six months. In 1830, the 
magistrate of the Nanhae district in Canton, took it upon himself 
to proclaim all as thieves that were seen on tops of houses, after 
first-watch ; and after second-watch, they might be fired at, but 
with grains of paddy (rice unhusked) ; " because,^' he adds, ^' I 
want to detect thieves, not to take lives.'' 

The existing penal laws for China were promulgated by the pre- 
sent Tartar usurpers, in the middle of the 17th century, shortly 
after they seized on the throne and empire of China. The last 
edition was published in 1830, in twenty-eight volume octavo : the 
lowest d^ree of punishment is &om ten to fifty blows, with a 
bamboo five feet long and two inches thick ; the second degree of 
punishment is from sixty to one hundred blows ; temporary banish- 
ment, with one hundred blows, is the third degree of punishment; 
perpetual banishment is the fourth; and death is the fifth degree. 
The Tartar subjects are beaten with a whip, and instead of banish-> 
ment, put into a moveable pillory. 

The law for enrolment is plain and clear; every person from 
the age of four years must be entered on the registry : omitting to 
register all the family annually is punished with 100 blows, if 
there be any property in the family; 80, if otherwise. Every 100 
families all over the empire form a division, and appoint ten asses- 
sors to oversee their district, and make the annual returns ; for 
any neglect the bamboo is applied. 

The first fmd most severe enactment is the protection of the 
emperor's apartments, of the empress, her mother; and grand? 
mother, whose dwellings are sacred, and whoever enters without 
authority will be strangled. No one but his majesty's attendants 
shall cross his bridges or roads ; and during his journeys, any ob- 
struction or intrusion while travelling, is death : hence, it may be 
said^ being near an emperor is as dangerous as meeting a tiger. 

All periBons who carry the productions or inventions of the 
country beyond the frontier, or remove themselves out of the em- 
pire, BhdUbe beJieaded: it is also forbidden any one by the laws to 
build or settle on any of the islands near the coast ; no horses or 
icattle can be killed without permission ; all official letters and dift- 

Satches must travel at the rate of 300 le, or Chinese miles, in a 
a^r and « night ; cue hour's delay subjects them to the bamboo, 



RESPONSIBILITY OF RELATIONS. 



'1S7 



ten blows for each hour; the distance from Peking to Canton is 
1200 English miles by land^ and the distance is performed in thir- 
teen or fourteen days; the gazette seldom arrives in less than 
thirty days; officials are allowed ninety days to perform the 
joum^. 

In the 6th article of the criminal code, high treason, rebellion, 
allegiance^ sorcery, and magic, are treated under the head of theft 
and robbery. All persons convicted of high treason, shall suffer 
death by a slow and painful execution; also all the male relations 
in the first degree, from the age of sixteen upwards, hamely, farther, 
grand-father, sons, grand-sons, paternal uncles^ and their sons, 
shall suffer death :' all male relations under sixteen ye^s 6f4ge, 
shall be given rto the : great officers of state as daves, andHhe 
females of all ages, likewise ; all property is confiiscated. 

Quarrelling and fidb^ng are puidshed : striking with the hand, 
20 blows of the hias^oo;' tearing more than one inch of hair, is 
50 blows ; breaking a tooth, or any bone of the body, 100 blows ; 
any person guilty of striking their father, graiidfather, grand- 
mother, — or any wife who is guilty of striking her husband, father^ 
grandfather^, or grandmother, shall suffer death. 

All the courts of justice in China are fctmished with a drum, the 
beating of which by those who demiHid justice, together With 
the noise and confusion, has a veiy novel appearance to an Euro- 
pean. 

There does not appear to be any fixed period for the courts of 
' justice to sit^ and sometimes the magistrate presides to hear causes 
jih private; but, general^ speaking, the public are admitted indis- 
criminately. The magistrate sits at a table, which is fiirhished 
with writing materials ; plaintiff, defendant, and the witnesses 
kneel in the front of the judge. The pleadings are all written by 
licensed noises, who are permitted to read them, but no coxmsel 
is allowed to plead. 

The 41 6th section of the criminal code provides, that when a 
prisoner has been tried and convicted, he shall be brought before 
the judge a second time, together with his family and his nearest 
. relations, each of whom are at liberty to acknowledge or protest 
against the judgement about being pronounced. The protests are 
taken down in writing, and form a case for a second investigation. 
The same section provides^ a punishment of sixty blows to any 
magistrate who refuses to receive a protest under such circum- 
stances, viz., whether a subject has been sentenced to banishment 
or death. When the case is disposed of, a ftiU report of the pro- 
ceedings is required to be furnished to the emperor. 

State of the Prisons. — ^The fooyuen of Canton, in a report to the 
Emperor on the state of the prisons, reports that they are not suf- 
ficiently large to contain the vast number of prisoners that accu- 
mulate, in consequence of the great delay in the administration of 
justice. The report further states, that the magistrates have been 
in the habit of taking separate buildings when the jails weife foil i 



•* 



168 STATE OF THE PRISONS. 

that in one district^ he found three such private prisons^ with upwai^ 
of 300 prisoners^ witnesses^ and accusers^ who had been sent from 
some distant part of the province, to have their cases decided at the 
provincial capital. These private prisons are built in the form of 
a bird-cage, and are used as a means of confession and extortion ; 
some of the prisoners had been confined (untried) for long periods, 
averaging from three to twelve months. Two magistrates had ap-' 
pointed females to attend them, who provided female slaves for the 
basest purposes. In 1816 there were upwards of 10,000 prisoners 
confined in the various jails in China convicted of capital offences, 
awaiting the imperial order for execution. In 1829, Governor Le, 
of Canton, sent a report that a prison had been burnt, and twenty 
prisoners had lost their lives. His Majesty ordered all the autho- 
rities to be put on their trial, as it appeared that torture had been 
illegally resorted to by the officers, and a disposition of revolt 
having shown itself, the prison was purposely set on fire. The 
Peking Gazette, of the 16th May, 1830, announced a return of 
10,500 prisoners capitally convicted, but respited, in consequence 
of an imperial anniversary. 

Prisons are made use of as an instrument of torture that baffles 
description. Those who have money to spend can be accommo- 
dated with private apartments, cards, servants, and every luxury. 
T3^e chains and fetters are removed from the body, and suspended 
against the waUs until the hour of going the round occurs. Those 
who have no money to bribe, are in a pitiable condition. Not only 
is every alleviation of their sufferings denied, but actual infliction 
of punishment is added to^ extort money, or buy burnt offerings 
(of paper) to the god of the jail; for this purpose the prisoners are 
severely tortured. The words " hell" and " prison'* are synonymous 
in the Chinese language. 

Modes of Punishment, Torture, SfC. — ^According to the penal 
code, magistrates are permitted to use instruments of torture to 
obtain a confesmon of guilt* The code also provides punishn;ient 
for unjustly abusing this privilege. The only limitation is the 
eight privileged classes, and all below the age of fifteen and above 
seventy years. 

A censor, ficom the province of Honan, reports to the Emperor 
as follows,-r^^^All courts of law have fixed regulations, in ques- 
tioning prisoners, that should guide their conduct before the 
magistrates inflict punishment. Latterly, when prisoners are 
brought before district-magistrates on suspicion, in order to obtain 
a character for activity they resort to various modes of torture to 
induce them to confess. The common practice is pulling them by 
the ears, and obliging them to kneel on iron chains for a length of 
time, with the breast, small of the back, and legs bent up, and 
fastened to three crossbaris; and suspending them from a beam 
by strings placed round their fingers and thumbs. By this means 
many innocent people are compelled to sign a confession of guilt.*' 
The same censor reports, that ^^the police fix on timid people^ who 



TORTURES. APPEAL REGULATIONS. 159 

are known to possess property, and Msely accuse them of seditious 
practices^ and by that means extort large sums of money .^' And 
he^^es on to say^ that ''these things could not be done, unless the 
\ocil magistrate connived at it. I lay this statement, with respect 
and reverence, before your majesty. — Chow.'' 

Flogging, otherwise beating with the bamboo, and whipjmig 
with a rattan, are the most general modes of pxmishment for petty 
offences. The whip is a modem instrument, and only exercised 
on Tartars. A sentence of banishment is convertible, for the 
Tartars only, into wearing the wooden collar. This punishment is 
not clearly laid down in the penal code ; but from what is known 
as the practice, the distance averages from one hundred to fourteen 
hundred statute miles from the culprit's native place ; the desti- 
nation rests entirely with the emperor. The fifteenth section 
provides, m all cases of perpetual banishment, the criminal's wife 
must be sent with him ; his children and relations, only, when the 
offence is high treason, — ^the relations are designated '^ imperial 
prisoners." Those sentenced to banishment for short periods, are 
employed in government salt-works. A large number of i^ose 
who are sentenced for long periods, or fbr life, are sent to Western 
Tartary, and handed over to the soldiers as slaves. From the 
northern parts of the empire the . criminals are sent to the soutih, 
as slaves to the Tartar soldiers. Yuen, the governor of the pno- 
vince of Yunnan, in 1832, memorialised the Emperor, oomplaining 
of the vast number of convicts which are annually sent to Aat 
province from Tartary. This is done on account of the unhealth- 
iness of the climate ; their numbers average 4,500, of whom one- 
fourth are ignorant of any trade, and must be supported by the 
province, which cannot afford it. The annual expense is 4,000 
taels. 

Appeals. — ^According to the section 332 of the penal code, all 
subjects of the empire, soldiers or citizens, who have complaints to 
make, must address themselves, in the first instance, to tiie lowest 
tribunal of justice within the district to which they belong. Sec- 
tion 341 provides, that " in all cases of adultery, robbery, frauds, 
breach of laws concerning landed property, pecuniary contracts, or 
Of any such offences, committed by or against individuals in the 
^tt^tary class, or if the people are impUcated in any way, the 
military commanding officer and the civil magistrate shall have 
joint jurisdiction." 

Chang-ling, who was prime minister in 1830, was fined to the 
aniount of one year's salary, for permitting a petition to be handed 
to the emperor in person, although the petition was fi*om a Soldier 
of the body-guard. 

A memorial from the captains of infantry who had chai^ of 
tlie city gates, complains of the vast number of petitioners who 
have lately resorted to Peking. The memorialists attribute the 
number of appeals to the perverseness of the people, and the 
neglect of duty in the local officers, so that women and girls of 



160 SUBSTITITTES FOR MVUDSRERS. 

tetider'a^e travel thousands of miles to obtain rdflress. To^ (mfe 
this growing evil> the captains have suggested that all petltionefrs 
coming to reking^ without previously laying their case before their 
own goveilior^ be punished; that, should their case be mijustty 
decided^ those who have tried it be likewisei punished. 

It is evident that the numerous ap|)eals arise from the delay in 
obtaining justice. The Emperor^ in approving of a magistrate in 
the province of Hoopih, who had disposed of 1,000 cases wifchfhi 
the yisar, in which the parties had appealed to superior courts, 
isays, "what must the number be throughout the empire?" His 
Majesty added, ''that unjust decisions must be the catise of so 
many[ appeals being brought forward. Hereafter, let all governors 
' of prbvmces issue strict orders that all appeals be disposed of as 
' soon 'as they are presented. If they aare allowed: to accttmiilate in 
future, report to me.'' 

' A case otcmtteA in 1829, in' the province of Keangse, and on 
examiiling itito the appeal it appeared, that two substitutes had 
been found for the real murderfe^s, who were bribed to undergo 
the sententre bf death in thdr stead. 

On an appeal to Peking against two magistfrates, for torturing 
the ' appellant's &ther to death by a false accusation, they were 
semtenc^ to tranaportation with hard labour. 

A widow of Foo-keen, after appealing in vain for four years to 
the local authorities for redress for the murder of her son, sent her 
nephew to Peking. The case was attended to, but the court was 
unable to comprehend him owing to his local dialect. The fact 
was, that the robbers belonged to such a powerful gang, that the 
authorities dare not take them up. 

•The governor of the two Kwang provinces, interdicts women 
from presenting memorials or appeals, and old men appearing as 
' witnesses. "How can old men, m the evening of life, become wit- 
nesses? But^ among the people of Canton^ there exists a litigious 
spirit. Now^ as old men cannot be punished, these seditious cha** 
racters hire them as witnesses. As the punishment of crimes 
cannot be inflicted on women, they send young delicate females 
openly into the halls of justice. You, magistrates, must examine 
into tne matter j question both parties and find out the bribery, 
and inflict severe punishment. If people stop my chair in order to 
force a petition into it, I will seize the presenter and punish him 
severely; — ^let them go to the inferior courts." 

In 1821, the crew of H. M.'s ship Topaz had an affray with 
the inhabitants of Lintin, when two Chinese were killed. Two 
years after this transaction, the brother of one of the men who 
was killed, visited Peking to complain against the authorities in 
Caution, particularly Howqua, whom he charged with receiving a 
bribe from the foreigners. The case was referred to the emperor, 
who sent the appellant back to Canton, with an order to the go- 
vernor, to enquire into the affair. The governor reported, that the 
accusation was false ; and, according to law, the appellant is guilty 



COEMPTION FROM CRIMES. 



161 



of false accusation^ and sentenced to be banished 2^000 miles 
distance from his native place. 

OATHS.*-*-The form of an oath is dispensed with in their courts 
of justice. Still the people consider an oath as a most solemn 
engagement. The man who persists in a denial or affirmation of 
a fact, is led by the parties who are interested to a temple which is 
completely darkened. He then denounces against himself the 
most dreadful imprecations^ invoking both heaven and earth to 
witness. After this he cuts off the head of a fowl^ and^ while the 
blood is streamings repeats his former words^ devoting himself to 
destruction if he does not speak the truth. Any man that hem 
gone through this ordeal is held in superstitious dread and ab- 
horrence; and this is the reason why oaths of this kind are seldom 
resorted to. Oaths^ however, are freely administered amongst the 
various secret societies. The novitiates are sworn to abjuire all 
hniDiia ties, to merge their fanuly feelings, and, if xiBcemxy for 
the objects of the society, to abandon their names and country. 

An oath common among the people, consists in pointing with 
the finger to a near object^ and saying, as sure as this exists, so 
true are my statements. 

The following table exhibits a scale of pecuniary redemption 
from crimes, which, by an edict of Keenlung, is acted on in 
China : — 



Rank of the Party pfiending. 



Sentence. 



9> 



99 



99 



An officer above the 4th rank . . 

of the 4th rank . . . 

of the 5th or 6th rank . 

of the 7th, or any infe- 
rior rank, or a doctor of literature 
A graduate or licentiate .... 
A private individual 

An officer above the 4th rank . . 

of the 4th rank . . . 

of the 5th or 6th rank . 

of the 7th, or any infe- 
rior rank, or a doctor of literature 
A graduate or licentiate . . . . 
A private individual 

An officer above the 4th rank . . 

of the 4th rank . . . 

of the 5th or 6th rank . 
A. graduate or licentiate .... 
A private ^n^ividual 



99 
9t 



99 



Death by 
Strangula- 
tion or 
Decollation. 



< 



$9 



99 



Perpetual 
Banishment 



.J 



Temporary 
^ Banishment 
or Blows. 



Pecuniary 
Coininufatiofi« ; 

' ■ I II ■- .M 

Ozs. of Silver. 

J 2.000 
5.000 
4.000 

2.500 
2.000 
1.200 

7.200 
3.000 
2.400 

1.500 
1.200 
0.720 

4.800 
2.000 
1.600 
0.800 
0.480 



M 



169 NUHBSB OF GAPITAl. PUNI8HM1NTB. 

StraagQlatioQ is performed by tying a man with his back to a 
post^ around which and his neck a rope is drawn tight and twisted 
by a winch. This mode of execation is considered the least dis-> 
graceful in China. Section 422 of the penal code prescribes a 
punishment of sixty blows to any magistrate who substitutes, 
wilfully, this punishment for beheading. The smallest crime for 
which a sentence of strang^ulation is pronounced, is a third con- 
viction of stealing, and defiicing the brand-marks inflicted by the 
two former convictions. 

The criminal code provides that no execution shall take place 
during the first or sixth moons in any year. Europeans, who have 
been long resident in Canton, have never been aUe to ascertain 
the exact number of executions that have taken place, as the 
Peking Gazette only occasionally publishes the total number fixed 
by the Emperor. In March 1817 there were twenty-four men 
beheaded in Canton, and five days after eighteen more. Executions' 
in Canton excite little or no interest, from their firequent occur- 
rence, and the crimes for which so many suffer are rarely or ever 
made public. 

The Peldng Gazette, of October 1817, states the number of 
warrants signed bv the Emperor was 926, of which 185 belonged 
to the province of Canton. The whole of these were minor of- 
fences only, which awaited the autumnal decision. All offences . 
of a serious nature have the penalty of execution performed before 
the Emperor is informed of it, notwithstanding the law. 

A maniac who killed his father was punished with death, in the 
province of Hoonan, although he was proved to be deranged 
several years. . 

The number of autumnal death-warrants, in 1826, was 681. 
The same gazette states that a Tartar soldier, who had killed his 
mother, had been handed over to the privileged tribe to which he 
belonged, to be dealt with as they thought proper. In 1828, a 
young female was cut in a thousand pieces, for poisoning her 
mother-in-law ; her husband wan compelled to witness the scene, 
and shed tears at this butcherly sight. For this display of feeling 
he was instantly sentenced to wear the cangue a month, and re- 
ceive fifty blows. There is no exhibition of feeling iJlowed where 
the death of a father or mother is vindicated. 

The total number of executions in Canton, in 1829, was 190, of 
which 130 were executed without any reference being made to the 
Emperor, and sixty died by imperial warrant. 

At the autumnsd sittings of 1828 there were ordered for execu- 
tion 782, of which the single province of Szechuen had 112 marked 
for execution. 

The succeeding year the number published was 579, of which 
the above province had 104. In 1833 the number executed, in 
Canton, was 166. 

On a recent occasion^ the Emperor having gone through the cus- 
tomary form of fasting and prayer, received, in autumn, the list of 



PERIODIC READING Of THE LAWS. 16ft 

crimiiidtii s^iienced to deaths £rom the hands of Muhchangah^ 
the prime minister. In presence of the ministers of the cabinet^ 
the members of the privj council^ and the president and officers of 
the board of punishments^ the following n^nmber was maafked off in 
eight successive days^ for execution^ viz. : for Tarkestan, 4; Yun- 
nan^ 28; Kwiechoo^ ll; Szechuen. 136; Kwang-tnng (Canton)^ 
25; Kwangsee^ 10; Foo-keen, 9; Leaontnng, 21; Kan-suh and 
Shense provinces, 26 ; Chekeang, 14 ; Keangse, 20 ; Hookwang^ 
49; Keangsoo, 25; Ganhwuy, 23; Honan, ^&; Shan-'tung 29; 
Shanse, 24; Chih-le, 17; Jehol, 4; and Peking, 18. This list 
only shows the number who have accomnlated during the whole 
year, and on whose behalf mercy has been sought in vain. Total, 506. 

A proclamation from governor Loo, in the Peking Gazette^ 
against exhumation, states that the law is as follows : "To open a' 
grave and see the coffin^ shall be punished by perpetusd banishment. 
To open the coffin and see the corpse, death by strahgulatlon. To 
carry off the body and demand a ransom, death by immediate 
decapitation, both for principals and accomplices. At the north 
gate of Canton city^ where maiiy are buried, there are three classes 
of resurrection men. First, those who open graves and break the 
coffins of their foes from revenge and malice I 2nd, those who do 
so to strip the dead bodies of their ornaments ; and 8rd, those who 
carry off the dead to obtain ransom. These are crime's sufficient 
to make the hairs of one^s head stand on end. The l*w shall be 
strictly enforced without mercy.'' 

Every city has its town haD, where the laws aire periodically read 
to the peopte. 

The Sacred Edict, containing sixteen maxims of the Emperor 
Eanghe, is by statute required to be proclaimed throughout the 
empire, by the local officers^ on the first and fifteenth of every 
moon. The maxims are as fbUows :— * 

1st. Pay just regard to filial and fraternal duties, iu order to give 
due importance to the relations of life. 

2nd. Respect kindred, in order to display the excellence of har- 
mony.* 

Srd. Let concord abMUd among those who dwell in the same 
neighbourhood, in order to poretfent litigations. 

4th. Give the <diief place to husbandry and the culture of the 
mulberry tree, in order to procure adequate supplies of food and 
raiment. 

5th. Hdd economy in estimation, iii ord^ to prevent the lavish 

waste of money. 

0th. Magnify academical learning, in order to direct the scholar's 

progress. 

7th. Degrade all strange religions, in order to exalt the orthodox 

doctrine. 

* There are not more than 100 family namaa ii»lli* empire. 

M 2 



164 IMPERIAL MAXIMS. 

8th. Explain the laws^ in order to warn the ignorant and db^ 
stinate. 

0th. niostrate the principles of a polite and yielding carriage^ in 
order to improve manners. 

10th. Attend to the essential employments^ in order to give un- 
varying determination to the will of the people. 

11th. Instruct the youth^ in order to prevent them from doing 
evil. 

12th. Suppress all false accusing, in order to aecure protection 
to the innocent. 

13th. Warn those who hide deserters^ that they may not be in* 
volved in their downfitU. 

14th. Complete the payment of taxes, in order to prevent fre- 
quent urging. 

15th. Setde animosities, that lives may be duly valued. 

16th. Unite thie paou and kea, in order to extirpate robbery and 
theft,* 

The fcUowing case illustrates in some points the nature of Chinese 
law and justice : — ^A French marchant vessel was wrecked on the 
coast of Codiin China, in 1829, but the crew were saved. The 
captain hired a Chinese junk to convey his crew, thirteen in number, 
to Macao. In the progress of their journey the Chinese murdered 
every man ci the crew, except one Italian, Francisco Mangiapan, 
who escaped by swimming to a Chinese boat, which brought him 
to Macao. The Chinese authorities displayed the most laudable 
anxietjir to discover the murderers, and offered fifty dollars for the 
detection of each, and a monthly allowance of three taels to the 
Italian, and a present of 100 dollars. The whole gang were taken, 
tried, and condemned, and due notice was given to all foreigners 
resident in Canton, that the government would confront the mur-* 
derers with Francisco in the Hong merchants' hall on a certain day, 
that they might be present. 

On the day oi trial, the prisoners arrived, each in a separate cage; 
about three feet long, two wide, and three deep, with chains round 
their necks, legs, and wrists. One of the prisoners, a native of 
Foo-keen, appeared most anxious to communicate with some person 
who understood his dialect. A foreign gentieman who was pre* 
sent, ascertained from him, that from the torture he had undergone 
he confessed to a guilty knowledge of the crime, but wished to 
recant that plea. The prisoners were brought before the judge 
three at a time, and put on their knees. Francisco was attended 
bv a Portuguese interpreter, and with very little hesitation he fully 
identified idl the murderers. In his first statement, one of the 
crew was described as not having taken any part in the massacre; 

• " The law of the paou and the kea.'* Ten families form a kea, and ten koa 
contftttute a paou. Every kea has its elder, and every paou its chief. A register is 
preparedi and the mmwof all must be enrolled. 



THE PEKING^ OR OOYBENMENT GAZETTE. l65 

"but on the contraiy^ early intimated to the French Cfiptftin their 
mnrderous intention. Francisco described him minutely, by a 
mark on his face. When the prisoner who spoke to the foreigner 
was brought forward, Francisco instantly pointed him out as hit 
deliverer, and regardless of the consequence or presence ((f government j 
gave rent to the intensity of his gratitude by embracing him with 
all the warmth and ardour so peculiar to his country. The judge 
having closely questioned Francisco, appeared fully satisfied, so l£e 
sentence was respited for banishment. Seventeen men suffered 
for the murder, and the French consul received 3,000 dollars 
made up from property which the malefactors possessed in their 
own right, but was confiscated ; their relations were mulcted out 
of 150,000 dollars, by the various officers. The subsequent con- 
fession of the pardoned culprit, discloses an extraordinary tset, that 
six of those that suffered death were bought substitutes. 

The Press. — Government communicates its orders and transmits 
information through a Peking Gazette, called king-paou ; {king 
great, and paou to report), which is published by government and 
circulated in every province, entirely for the use of officers of go- 
vernment ; its indiscriminate circulation is contrary to law. Tlie 
Gazette at all times contains curious information, by which we 
are made acquainted with the machinery of the government. The 
diief contents of each number is taken up with rewards to meritor- 
ious officers, the degradation of others, mem<Hial8, disasters attend- 
ing the rivers, &c. ; impeachments and proclamations occupy a 
great portion of it : these documents are all signed, Taoukwang^ 
(Beaaon's Glory), as with us in the form of " Qod save tiie Queen/* 

All licentious books are prohibited, but the law is a dead letter, 
and they have a wide range. Works on sorcery, witchecalt, and 
divination, (except those branches sanctioned by the government), 
are interdicted, and the authors and printers are Hable to lose their 
lives. Political subjects are not to be discussed. The government 
publishes all political works, and only permits their circulation 
amongst the officers. The code of laws is an exception to this ge- 
neral rule ; at the rate of two dollars 24s volumes are circulated, so 
that no person may plead ignorance of the laws. Dr. Gntzlaff had 
the goodness to translate into the general printed character of the 
Chinese language— *my '^ Analysis of the Bible,'* or code oC social 
ethics ; it h{» not been interdicted by the government, and is now 
in ^Ltensive circulation throughout the whole em{»re. 

Secret Sects. — ^The Tartar rulers of China are continually dis- 
turbed by the discovery of secret sects and associations in different 
provinces. The vigilance with which the present Emperor per- 
secutes all those societies is accounted for thus ; his father's life 
was attempted by one of those sects, and only preserved by the 
valor of his present majesty. The various disturbances that have 
lately occurred in Shanse province, and Hoonan, have been traced 
to a society called " Heaven and Earth.** In the province of 



109 9B0ABT «IOPIf7IE8. 

Joo-keen a sect called the '^Tea Efociety^^ is conndered loost 
dangeroufl. Soldiers and pdice join these aeets; the novitiates, 
4t is saidj go thvongh a ceremony of drinking each ot^r's blood 
in»ed with water. 

The diaorgasised state of society^ aiid the conduct o{ the police 
and petty officers in the country, may a}so be gathered from '' a 
memoriM to the Emperor^ shoving the daily increa^ of enerratioKL 
ai»d degeneracy in the province of Kwang^tuAg/' ft^c^ in 1838. 

" lat. In the department of police^ no neghgence or ind(d.e«ce 
must be sujQfered; all jtudi^ cases mnst be si^eedily attended to 
ai|d determined ; tbei\ will peace dwell in tbs aberdes of the pecfk> 
and the instigators of strife be checked. 

'' Mfliay axe the cases of plunder that are from time to time 
brought forward in the province of Kwang-tung ; and of these a 
large number are attributable to unlawful asdoeiatkms^ Bands of 
men combine axid jmn together, nnder the designatioas of Teente 
[Brotherhoods 9 Triad Societies^ and such like* They carry off 
persms i^ order to extort ransoms for them ; they fiilsely assume 
the charader of poUcemen ; they clandestinely build fast-puUing 
boats, professedly to guard the £t<^s of graiflt, and these they man 
with a crew of from ten to twenty people, who cruise along the 
rivers^ vicdently plundering the boate of travellers as they pass to 
. and 1^0, or forcibly carrying off tiie wives and daughters of the 
tanka boat peojde. The inhabitants of the villages and hamlets 
fear these robbers as they would tigers, and do not offer th&sa. 
any resistance, lest they should draw down their resentment. The 
husba^idman, when he has received a ^Id to plant and ready for 
culture^ mnut take the precaution q£ paying these robbears a charge, 
which i$ called procuring an indemnity,— dse, as soon as the dsop is 
ripe, it is plundered, and the whole Md laid bare. In the preeincts of 
the metropolis, wWe their contiguity to the civil and military 
tribunals prevent^ them from committing violent depredationa in 
open day, they set fire to places during the night, thor aim being, 
under pretence, during the confla^pration, of saving and defendingi 
to avail themselves of opportunities to plunder and caxry off, Heace, 
oi late years^ calamitous fires have greatly increased in fre^eney. 
The local officers have treated these merdy as common accidental 
fires* And robbers, finding that they could thus act witii impunity, 
have added to the inregularity of their doings. 

'^ In cases of petty altercations, or of more serious dijq^utfis, 
among the people themselves-^as the uneducated villagers adhere 
closely to the use of local dialects, it consequently rests entirdy 
with the derkft and under-officers. to interpret the evidence. When 
the judicial officer, who9e duty it is to hear and determine, is in the 
slightest degree lax and inattentive, the attendants and asrvants 
of the court have the evidence pre-arranged, and join with bullies 
and strife-makers to subvert right and wr(Mi^**'fattening tiieiusdves 
upon bnbe4 es^to^ed undi»i: the naaies of 'notes or mernmefldsda of 



OFFICI4i< CORRtrPTION AKd OPPBESSION. 167 

the eomplaints/ ^piirchases dT replies/ and so forth; retarding in- 
definitely the deci^on of cases^ and even instigating thieves to bring 
fatee aocne^tiflbs against the good ; irho^ ere a true jndgment is 
elicited, and the stolen effects are recovered, are already rained and 
deprived of all their property. While the officers of government 
aiad people are thus kept apaii; and separated, kow can it be other- 
wise than that appeals to high^ tribunals should be incessant, and 
that instigation of strife and perseverance in litigation should 
prevail ? 

'' It behoves, therefore, that a declaration of the imperial plea- 
sure should be solicited, commanding the governor and lieutenant- 
governor of Kwang-tnng to issne orders to the magistrates through- 
•out the province, to apprehend the lawless, and give security to the 
good j and with severky to seize all who are joined in illegal asso- 
ciations, sending them to the metropolis, that they may be openly 
punished, and that like proceedings may be interdicted. By these 
means> masters wiU be led to eonunand theii^ lomiUes ; and these 
will have knowledge to be deterred Irom bdng seduced to attach 
themselves to snciii a88ociati(ms. Whenever any case of plunder 
arises, the magistrates should make personal investigation^ follow- 
ing the traces till they succeed in apprehending the thieves ; they 
shouM not seek, by disregard of the scatter, to a^oid censure for 
ill-success. When fires break out among the abodes of the people, 
the magistrates should ascertain how they originated, and should 
not be allowed to assume indifierence, and so let the matter pass 
off. As soon as complaints, or appeals, are brought before them^ 
they should immediately ^e their personal attention to ibe inves- 
tigation, and, if true, sh<^M ix^ict punishment with strictness; if 
unfounded, should visit with like punishment the false accusers. 
They should not give the rein to the clerks and attendants of the 
courts, lest their so doing should result iu a want of truth or of 
perfect justice. In this way it may be expected to dear off the 
judicial cases^ to settle long-delayed litigations, and gradually to 
bring to an end habits of plunder and robbery ; and thus it may 
be hoped that the people will be enabled to rest upon their beds 
in peace. 

" Sndly. The magistrates of districts, when collecting the taxes, 
whether of money or of grain, must not overrate the amount due, 
with a view of deducting from it, nor suffer the excise officers to 
connive at non-payment. 

'^ If the taxes be overrated, each individual will entertain schemes 
whereby he may hope to avoid payment, and the result will be, 
opposition to the electors, and defalcation of the revenue. If 
non-payment be connived at, debts from the people to the revenue 
w31 accumulate, and still increase, and the consequences must be 
that bribery wiU become necessary, in order to obtain continued 
delay. 

The province of Kwangtung, in place of its original contribution 



168 T1UA9 SOCIETY^ QBIOIN. 

to the supplies ccmveyed to the courts has for a long time paot paid 
the tax of grain, due from it, in money, which, after being collected^ 
is remitted to the provincial treasury, under the ^hajrge of the 
financial and territorial commissioner. The people have always 
attended to agriculture, and have not faOed gladly to dischai^ 
this tax. But it is said, that, of late years, whUst inundatioixs mA 
drought have in no small degree afflicted the land, causing very 
scanty harvests, the magistrates when levying the tax of grain, 
have rated the price of it as high as six or seven taels for a sheih 
of 120 catties.* The common pec^le are not possessed of abund- 
ant wealth, and cannot sustain being thus peeled and s<a;aped ; con* 
sequently, the clerks and tax collectors, and village bullies, have 
received bribes to shelter them and to let them pass free of pay- 
ment. And hence, old debts and new levies conjointly press upon 
them, and remain aUke unpaid. 

" It behoves, therefore, that a declaration of the imperial plea- 
sure be solicited, eommanding that strict orders be issued to all 
the magistrates, that whenever the tax on grain has to be collected, 
they shall, previously to the collection, issue mx)clamations through- 
out eveiy city, village, and market-plaee, dedaring what is the l^al 
amount leviable as the price of the grain-contribution, upon each 
acre of arable land, and commanding the payment iberectf within 
a time named; adding, also, that the clerks and tax-gatherers are 
not permitted to extort fees, or to receive any surjdus above the 
legal amount; that if any persons venture to undertake such exa<N 
tipn^ in onposition to the commands so issued, they «haU be strictly 
apprehended and punished. At the same time, these orders must 
not be stretched to involve the unoffending. All debts incurred 
prior to the year 1835, have, by a gracious dedaxatbn of the im- 
perial pleasure, received full remission ; which fact should be made 
known by appending to the magistrates' proclamation a copy, on 
yellow paper, of the imperial commands. Thus will be attained 
the certamty, that the village husbandmen and field labourers 
are all fully aware of, and thoroughly imbued, by the sovereign's 
benevolence : and any semblance of sanction will be removed from 
an undistinguishing enforcement of the payment of these remitted 
debts. Such measures as these will produce, in place of a tardy, 
a most ready and joyfiil payment of the taxes.'' 

The Triad Society. — This society excites great interest, as its 
object is atated to be the overthrow of the Tartar dynasty, and 
the restoration of the Chinese, which two centuries ago, was dis- 
possessed by the Tartar race. Dr. Gutzlaff found some of their 
papers, and has translated them. They consist of songs used at 
the initiation of new members, and of the oath taken by the 
novices. The societies take their beginning from a war between 
the Manchoos and the Suloos, towards the close of the seventeenth 

^ Xbc slieih i» legally rated at from three or four lacU. 



ORGANIZATION 01* THE TRIADS. ]69 

eentury. For many years the Triads have maintained a bold 
struggle with the usurping government; but in 1786, they were 
dispersed into various parts of the empire, having previously 
agnsed upon certain signs by which they might be known to each 
ai^axitf until the day of vengeance shall arrive, when they are all 
to march to Nankin, and estabhsh the ancient Chinese dynasty 
upon the throne. From that time to the present, they have main- 
tained a secret organization, somewhat like the Freemasons of 
Europe, divided into lodges, and connected by certain signs only 
known to themselves, such as certain passwords, or modes of 
putting a question, the manner of placing cups and dishes on the 
table, of putting on a garment, of saluting, &c. 

Meetings are held often by night, in secluded places; blood is 
mingled and burnt with incense on an altar; a cock is frequently 
sacrificed, Y0W8 of fidelity are renewed, traitors denounced, and 
vengeance deelared, which is rarely unfulfilled. Men frequently 
join these societies for protection, and seek the strongest body to 
enrol their names. 

The society is rapidly extending to all the lower dasi^, and 
Dr. Gutzlaff thinks that should they ever join the other numerotts 
political societies forming in every part of the empire, agaimt aJl 
barbarian encroachments, their resistance would be very for- 
midable. 

The manifesto, of which a translation is subjoined, wasfihiiid'in 
the English burial ground, at Macao, in the year 1828. 

It is discovered to be a kind of oath or speedti, which is ns^d 
by a seoret sodetv, whose object is to expel the present, to thfOn 
hateful dynasty, from the throne. There can be no doubt that 
these affiliated and formidable associations pervade all parts of 
China ; members oi them are said to be in every public office. 

"Manifesto to irwUe an Army" 

" 1st. Illustrious, illustrious, the middle nation : vast, vast, the 

celestial empire. 
2nd. A thousand states offered her tribute ; ten thousand nations 

attended her court. 
3rd. The Hoo-men usurped and seized her: resentment for this 

it is impossible to suppress. 
4th. Invite soldiers, buy horses — ^high respond the flowery bridge* 
5th. Arise, soldiers, upUft the pike; destroy and extermitiate the 

Tsing dynasty." 

The 152nd section of the penal code, provides punishment 
for < magicians, and teachers of false doctrines; 255 for rebeU 
lion : tim clause extends to Tartar subjects, as wdS a^ to 
other subjects of the empire, to all religious associations, but 
particularly to the " Heaven and Earth society" of Foo-keen : 256 



170 DBHOUNCBMXNT 07 8BCRET 80CIX9IBS. 

to sofoery and magic ; the 266tli section awards death to all^ of 
any party whose number shall amount to a hundred and more^ who 
meet to plan or commit robbery. 

The commentator (Shing-Yu), on the Sacred Edicts given at 
page 168^ cautions the people against attending religious meetings^ 
wluch he designates as nonsensical and mischievous; such as 
keeping fiists, and building temples, and which things, he says, are 
got up by the priests of Budha and Taou to deceive. It appears, 
that the objection government have to religious assemblies is 
founded on the tendency they all have to combine against the 
Mantchoo dynasty. Sir 6. Staunton states, that in the provinces 
inhabited by Tartars, half a dozen natives cannot meet without a 
clamour against their rulers. Amongst the most numerous of the 
illegal societies are the Water-lily sect, who about the beginning 
of this century, revolted in four provinces, Hoopih, Kausuh, Shense, 
and Ssechoen, which comprise a population of upwards of 
80,000,000; the rebellion was not suppressed for nearly nine 
years. 

In 1818, this society again broke out, and attacked the Emperor, 
Keaking, in his palace, at Peking, whose life was only preserved 
by the great courage displayed by his second son, the present 
Emperor. The first edict issued denounced the guilty sect *, but the 
magistrates, to exhibit their loyalty spared no society except the 
Budfaists, and advantage was taken of this opportunity to prosecute 
the numerous Christians and their missionaries, who were expelled 
flrom Peking. This period might be called the reign of terror, as 
very many of the innocent suffered for the guilty. The greedy 
mandarins and underlings tortured and extorted with impunity. 

The state of the empire from these proceedings cannot be better 
exhibited, than by giving some extracts from a manifesto from the 
Emperor, which appeared in the Peking Gazette, of 18th November, 
1814, ^^ This moment great degeneracy prevails ; the magistrates 
are destitute of truth, and a great portion of the people are false 
and deceitful. There is little of conscience or shame in their hearts. 
They enjoy the sweets of office, and carelessly spend their days : 
it is monstrously strange.^^ 

After some unsuccessful attempts, the society adapted another 
name, called, the *^ Triad Society, or Heaven, Earth, and Man,'' 
which according to the Chinese doctrine of the universe, are the 
three great powers of nature. There are other societies called 
the '^ Flood Family/' and ^* Queen of Heaven's Company," these are 
numerous in the Chinese colonies, and Singapore and Borneo, &c. 
The Peking Oazette of June, 1816, is much taken up with pro- 
ceedings against a secret society called the ^* Pure Tea Sect," the 
leader of which had been put to death. In 1817, a member of the 
imperial ftmily was discovered to be connected with one of those 
societies, and degraded. Governor Yuen, about tibis period, 
i^prebended upwards of 2000 members of a secret society in 



BANKING AND CURRISNOY. 171 

^antoB. In Z818, a large number of famOies w^e implicated iu 
Pekin^g, bij^t on making a full confession were foi^ven. In 1824, 
a society was discovered in Shan-tung, and upwards of 500 appre- 
hended; fMiother in Soochawi was this year scattered, by the 
increased vigilance of the authorities. In 1827, a serious disturb- 
ance occuxred wt the Meiling Passi in which a magistrate was 
kiUed ; aI$o at Leesichaw, this year, the inhabitants were plundered 
of lall their moveable property, including rice-crops, &c. A censor 
repcHrtSy that the local magistrates are in dread of punishing the 
members wh^i brought before them : the Emperor in answer ordered 
the military to take up the matter. 

In 1831, the Emperor ordered proclamations to be issued offer- 
ing free pi^don to all who would recant, and give up their con- 
nexion with those societies. The Grovemor of Canton, in a kind of 
answer to his majesty, suggests a mode that has been tried in four 
districts of the province with success, viz. ^ving th^n waste lands 
rent free. The emperor has consented to this plan, but desires 
that tax-gatherers and underlings may not be fdlowed to oppress 
them, also that/r«e schools diould be established among them; and 
that strict attention be p^d to the half monthly reading of the 
Sacred Edict; in <H*der to incite them to the practice of virtue. 

The condusion at which I have arrived, s&ex an attentive exami- 
nation of the whole of the question respecting the government of 
China, is that it is corrupt to the core, and losing control over 
the nation, which is held together by habit, — ^by the natural love 
, of the people for order and peace, — by the associations, interests, 
and feelings which more or less pervade every large and long- 
. established c(»oamunity. Bu;t this will be a subject for future dis- 
. clission. 



CHAPTER V, 



BANKING AND CURRENCY. 



Tub trade in money, in China, is carried on by bankers, assayers 
of the mint, aad money-changers, whose establishments are com- 
jMOzed mider the general term of ^' money-shops :" their occupation 
is similar to that of like establishments in Europe. The money- 
shops in China are generally private establishments, composed of 
one or more individimls, with equal or unequal shares in the busi- 
ness. Sometimes only one name is used, although there are seve- 
ral partners in the &rm. They receive money in d^osit at one 



Vti :iANKINO LAWS. — IiVTCB£6T. 

rate of interest, and lend out at another ; they advance money on 
good secnrity, and deal in gold, silver, and native and foreign coin. 
They discount either their own bills, or those of their coimexioDS 
in business, with whom they are on a footing of reoiproeity. In 
Canton they do not issue notes payable on demand ; but in other 
large cities in the north, such notes are in circulation, often with a 
great many endorsements on them; They, however, only circulate 
in the places where they are issued, or in their immediate vicinity. 
The notes issued by the bankers rise and &11 in value according to 
the demand for them. On our occupation of Ningpo, they rose in 
value, as the people wished to carry off their prc^perty, and our 
troops did not think it worth while to seize pieces of paper. The 
confidence reposed in large banks is unlimited : a low<^las8 China- 
man will cheat for a ^^ cash,'' but the higher class, in large dealings, 
are scrupulously honest. The bankers receive deposits drawaUe 
at will of the depositor, when no interest is allowed ; or they take 
money at interest^ not exceeding one per cent, per month, in which 
case timely notice must be given before any portion of it can be 
withdrawn. At Shanghai, on a deposit of 100 tads of silver, inte-^ 
rest is allowed at the rate of seven mace per month : on a loan of 
the same amount effected, the rate. of interest is fifteen mace per 
month : loans are effected to any amount. One bank in Shanghai, 
whose books I minutely examined^ seemed very methodically con- 
ducted. The highest lawful interest is three per cent, per month ; 
but this is seldom obtained without considerable risk, except by 
pawnbrokers. When mone^ is deposited, a receipt for it is giv^i, 
in which the terms upon which it is deposited are stated. 

Agreements to receive money at compound interest are unkmr" 
ful ; but when the interest is to be added to the principal, the oii^ 
ginal receipt is cancelled, and a new one given, the aggregate being' 
considered as the principal, at single interest. This may be dcHie 
monthly, annually, or at any other periods, according to agree- 
ment. 

By the Chinese law, three per cent, per month s= th]rty-*six per 
annum, is the limited rate, and whatever the period upon which 
interest is due at the day of repayment, no more can be received 
or demanded than the original sum lent, and the lawful interest 
thereon, to an amount not exceeding the principal. Debtors not 
fulfilling their agreements a,^ punished by blows, or by bamA- 
ment, to a given extent, according to the amount of the debts ; the 
blows to be repeated from month to month. 

Bills of exchange, and promissory notes, circulate : these are 
either payable at sight, or within a given period after sight, in which 
latter case they are regularly accepted; and lastly, they are some* 
times made pay6.ble at a fixed period. A certain sort of froaoMory 
notes is in use among the Chinese at Canton, which do not pass 
through the hands of more than three or four persons, all of whom 
ajre. well acquainted with each other. . In lieu of endorsing the 



BANK NOTES* — EXCHANGES. 178 

(M*igitlal note in the manner cnstomary in Europe, ^they attache a 
piece of paper to it, in which they assign the reason why it has 
been handed over to another person instead of money : at maturity 
the holder does not apply for payment to the drawer, but to him 
from whom he has received the bill ; and thus each endorser pro- 
ceeds, until at last it reaches the drawer; or the three or four per- 
sons whose names are on the endorsement, including the actual 
holder of the bill, call together on the drawer for payment : this 
latter mode is considered the most simple and effectual. The 
Chinese in Canton, therefore, do not consider promissory notes so 
much as an accommodation, but rather as a security for the pay- 
ment of money. The discount charged on such bills varies accord- 
ing to the scarcity or abundance of money in the market, but 
would rarely exceed one per cent, per month. Money can be 
transmitted through the banks from Canton to those places with 
which they stand in relations of business, and this is effected either 
1^ credit or bills of exchange, at a cost of about half, one, two, or 
three per cent., according to distance. Many of the banks, how- 
ever^ only confine their transactions to Canton, and the adjoining 
province of Kwangse. Some have correspondents in one or two 
other provinces, but the connexions of only a few extend beyond 
those limits. At Foochoo, the capital of the Foo-keen province, 
banks are numerous, and paper notes almost the sole circulating 
me&nm. The lowest notes I obtained at Foochoo were for 400 
cash, about a quarter of a dollar ; some notes are issued in the 
Q(»them cities as high as 30,000 taels, or 35,000 dollars. Monev 
was safely remitted for our consulates by native bankers betweeii 
Amoy and Foochoo. The cost for sending 9950 dollars from Soo- 
choo (the large city of which Shanghai is the port) to Canton, is 
fi^* dollars. The bank which possesses most credit at Canton is 
said to be that of Anshing, whose correspondence is chiefly with 
Nanking and Peking; and it is said that lus intercourse with these 
places is as regular, if not more so, than that of government. 

On placing funds in a bank, the depositor is famished with a 
pass-book, and whenever he draws for money, he sends his book 
to the bank, where the sum paid is entered in the same. It ap- 
pears that when the pass-book is lost, there is a great difficulty in 
recovering ihe money which has not been drawn for. The larger 
baak establishments have branches in some of the principal places 
of trade connected with Canton. The bankers take each others' 
notes where there is an understanding between them to that effect : 
failures of banks are of rare occurrence. None of the persons, vari- 
oody employed in banking business, are responsible to, or in any 
wayooimected with the government, except the government shroffs, 
or assiqp«rs of the Mint. Every public officer, superintending any 
bfaz]|ch'of the revenue, employs one of these shroffs to receive the 
taxes and dntioAy^ with the addition of a fixed allowance for loss in 
melting ^ and the shroff having reduced them to syceo silver (in 



174 ANCIENT PAPER HONEt. 

whicli state only they are received by the imperial treasury), he 
becomes responsible fer the pnrity thereof. 

The establishments thus connected with the government are 
licensed, and remunerated by a certain allowance for waste, which 
always exceeds the amount actu<dly required. Taxes are generally 
handed over to them by the public departments; and duties of im- 
port and export are paid into their banks by the merchants from 
whom they are owing; in which latter case the banker grants a re- 
ceipt for the amount, accompanied by a certificate that it shall be 
paid to the government within a certam period. The refined silver 
is generally cast into bars of the form of a horse shoe, and stamped 
with the banker's namcj and the date when it was refined. Any 
deception on the part of the assayer, at whatever distance of time 
discovered, is liable to severe punishment. The fbllowing details of 
the progress of paper money may interest : — ^in the year 119 B.C., 
paper money was used by the Chinese ; sometimes a nominal cur- 
rency was issued on pieces of skin a foot square, or on pasteboard; 
in the Hung Dynasty, a.d. 807, the currency was more regular, 
and copper only used for coining. Contributions were obliged to 
be made to the treasury, for which ** the Sian,'^ voluntary money, 
was issued ; a.d. 960. notes were issued for merchandise deposited 
in the public treasuries — ^Kke pawnbrokers' duplicates : they were 
called " pianthsian,'' or accommodation money, were everywhere 
negotiable, made on paper a foot square, with their current value 
stamped on them, and had an oifficial seal. Subsequently a system of 
cheques (tchilse) were issued to replace the heavy iron coinage used. 
About the tenth century a better system of banking was intro- 
duced ; biUs of exchange (kiao-tse changes) were issued, payable 
every three years. The kiao-tsee, is one ounce of silver, or 1,000 
cash. About the eleventh century the public creditors were paid 
by the issue of notes, or contracts in nominal value, varying from 
200 to 1,000 cash. The extent to which these were issued towards 
the close of the century, is stated to have been 38,000,000 ounces 
of silver. Different provinces, also, issued their own paper, and a 
great monetary confusion arose. 

Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, who resided in China upwarda^ 
of twenty years, about the year a.d. 1256, thus describes the mode 
in which paper money was then made and issued by the emperor, 
or grand khan, in the city of Kambalu (Pekin). The bark is strip* 
ped from a tree (the mulberry), on the leaves of which the silk-worm 
feeds. It is first well soaked in water, then pounded in a mortar 
into a pulpy consistence, and then made into paper of a da!fk 
colour, which is cut into oblong pieces of different sizes, and of the 
respective' values of a denier toumais of 1, 2, 5, and 10 Venetiaa 
groats, and 1, 2, 8, and as high as lObesants of gold. These notes 
are signed by special oflScers, and stamped with the emperor's seal, 
which attaches value to it. The pendty for forgery is death. Thi» 



CIRCULATION OF PAFEK UONSY. I7& 

paper money is circulated throTighout the empire^ and aay aarticle 
can be procured by those who have this money. 

Several times throughout the year^ large caravans of merchants 
arrive at Peking, with pearls, jewels, and gold tissues, which they lay 
before his majesty. Twelve valuers are then sent by the emperor, 
to fix the price of the goods, which are then paid for in this paper 
money. Should the caravans happen to be from a distant empire, 
they make no objection, as they invest the whole amount in mer- 
dumdize suited to their own markets. 

When these notes are damaged from use, they are exchanged at 
the Mint for new ones at the charge of three per centi The holders of 
these notes could obtain gold or silver for them at any time, by ap- 
plying to the Mint, provided it was for having the bulltou manu- 
factured into ornaments, drinking cups, &c. The armies of the 
empire were paid with this currency. 

One of the government notes extant, issued during the Ming 
dynasty, has the following on one half of the note : — 

^^ At the petition of the treasury board, it is prdained that paper 
money thus marked with the imperial seal of the Ming, shall have 
currency and be used in all respects as if it were copper money ; 
whoever disobeys wUl have hi8 head cut off J^ 

Paper money continued to be used, or rather abused, in China 
under the Moguls ; and Klaproth states that when they were driven 
from China, they had ruined it by their paper money. The Ming 
dynasty revived the paper currency, recalled the old, and issued 
new notes for 100 to 1,000 cash, and tried to keep up their value 
by forbidding traffic in gold or silver ; but the vidue of the notes 
declined in 1448 to three cash of copper for 1,000 cash paper. In 
1455 the Government decreed the taxes to be paid in paper money, 
metal money was forbidden; but the nominal government cur- 
rency gradually declined or passed away, and since then tiie people 
will not trust the government with the issue of paper money. 

The founder of the Ming dynasty in China, Hung-woo, issued 
large quantities of paper money; the dynasty which the Emperor 
destroyed, Yuen (who were Mongol Tartars) had also a great deal 
of paper money in use. 

There had also been paper money in circulation 140 years pre- 
vious to this, under the dynasty of Kin (oriental Tartars), who 
reigned in the northern provinces of China and Tartary. 

It does not appear that any of the native Chinese dynasties, 
which reigned in the southern provinces of China;, resorted to this 
mode of raising supplies; but it was generally adopted by the 
usurpers, for obvious reasons. 

In imitation of Spanish dollars, the reigning Emperor, not long ago 
issued pieces of money, nearly equal in weight, but of finer silver, with 
which the troops are paid ; the coin has on it in the Mantchoo and 
Chinese. languages, the words ^* Soldiers' pay." They are cast at 



176 MBTALLIC WEALTH OF CHINA. 

Hangchou and at Formosa. Gold bars circulate at a value varying 
from 180 to 220 dollars. Private individuals cast the coin called 
''cash/' as well as the government^ but they are continually dimin- 
ishing them in size^ and debasing their quality, although it is felony* 
The cash is the smallest coin in the worlds there being about 
1^000 to 1^500 in a dollar i. e. one-fifth to one-seventh of a farth- 
ing. Privately casting copper coin is punished with strangulation^ 
all accessaries in proportion. Other forgeries are punished by 
blows^ except those for deceiving the sovereign^ counterfeiting an 
official seal, or the imperial almanac, or the stamps which are used 
to authenticate the land or water permits for the conveyance of 
salt or tea throughout the empire — ^for which the punishment is 
death. Judging from the constant influx of large quantities of 
silver, supplied by the foreign trade for more than a century, with- 
out any being exported or wrought into plate to any great extent, 
the stock of silver hoarded up in China must be very considerable, 
notwithstanding the present heavy drain upon this accumulated 
treasure, by the large exportation of bullion for opium ; this is also 
counterbalanced in some degree by the annual production of the 
mines : by the importation of bullion and coin from Europe and 
South America, and by the savings of thousands of Chinese, scat- 
tered over the Indian Archipelago, who remit money home for the 
support of their parents and relations. It is computed that 
400,000,000 dollars passed from Acapulco to Manilla during the 
250 years of their intercourse ; of this sum it is estimated that one 
fourth passed from Manilla to China. Since 1784, about 100,000,000 
dollars have passed from the United States to China. Siam and 
Cochin China send large quantities of gold and silver in ingots to 
China. Japan, it is estimated, has poured into China during sixty 
years of free intercourse, at least 100,000,000 dollars. From all 
other sources during the past century, China has received about 
50,000,000dollars. The estimated metallic circulation is 500,000,000 
dollars. Silver mines exist in several parts of the empire, some of 
which may have been already exhausted and the working of others 
prohibited ; but the most extensive mines and those from which a 
part of the sycee silver is obtained, are at Fok-shau on the frontiers 
of Buxmah, and at Sung-sing in Cochin China, on the frontiers of 
Kwang-se : they are worked by a company of Chinese merchants, 
who are said to keep constantly twenty thousand men employed in 
the works, which they farm from the crown. The quantity derived 
from these mines annually, does not, however, appear to exceed twa 
ndUions of taels, or about six hundred thousand pounds sterling. 
Gold is said by some to be but little produced in the country. A 
small proportion is said to be derived from copper after it has been 
melted, and some is obtained from the sand of rivers, by washing. 
It is altogether considered as an article of merchan^e, and is 
bought and sold at the current price, but from its scarcity it has 



GOLD AND SILVEE VALtJES. 177 

hitlicMo been rather dear; one tael of gold being exclianged for 
abont sixteen taels of silver. The money shops deal in gold. 

At Amojr, in June last, I saw a considerable quantity of gold in 
ingots offered for sale. The touch was said to be ninety-two j weight 
of fifteen doubloons worth 215 dollars; fourteen doUars, 33 cents. 
per oz., or £2 19s. 8rf. Taking our standard gold at ninety-one 
and a half touch, and the oz. as fixed by law, at £3 i7s. lO^d, per 
oz., this would show a difference of 18^. 2d. per oz. The opium 
ships on the coast used to take gold in payment until they found a 
great deception practised. On one occasion 5,000 dollars were 
lost. The Loocho islanders bring gold in bars annually, to 
Foochoo for trade, when purchasing their yearly investments. 
Copper mines are found in all the provinces, but the most produc- 
tive are those in Wannam, which are worked under the superinten- 
dence of government. This metal, with the addition of tin, lead, 
and spelter, constitutes the coin which forms the circulating medium 
in China, commonly called " cash,*' of which from one thousand to 
twelve hundred good ones go to the tael of silver. These *' cash'* 
have a square hole in the centre, for suspending them on a string, 
which renders them more portable. Accounts are kept in taels, 
mace, candareens, and cash : — ^ 

10 cash (Chinese name le) = 1 candareen. 

10 candareens ( „ „ fun) =«= 1 mace. 
10 mace ( „ „ tseen) i= 1 tael. 

The Chinese name for taels, is leang. 

Owing to the admixture of many Cochin Chinese caih, with 
those in circulation at Canton, there is a difference in the number 
of these small coins which are given as an equivalent for the 
Spanish dollar. An uncut dollar is valued at seven mace, two 
eandareens. • 

Articles of commerce in Canton, are paid for in Spanish dollars, 
or in taels of silver. The Chinese at Canton are very fastidious in 
the choice of dollars ; rejecting some and choosing others, according 
to those more or less popularly preferred. Spanish dollars, with 
pillars, especially those in the reign of Charles or Carlos IV., are 
the most popular, and often bear a premium ; while on the other 
hand, the coin issued by the American states, such as Mexican dol- 
lars, are passed with difiSculty, even at a discount, varying ftom 
three to six per cent. There is another kind of Spanish dollars, 
bearing the stamp letter G. or G'., which denotes their being 
coined at the Guadalajara mint, called Kaw-tseen ; these are never 
reomved but at a discount of four and five per cent. The dread of 
change which is the characteristic feature in the domestic and 
foreign policy of China, has extended its influence to thecinadating 
mediuBi of the country. The government are determined that its 
eoffftfa shall suffer no defalcation by depreciation of currency, and 
hence the imperial taxes and duties are required to be paid in pure 

N 



178 COINING — SPANISH DOLLARS. 

silver. Since the increase of foreign trade^ the introduction of 
dollars has furnished a circulating medium of metal to a limited 
extent. The authorities seemed so sensible of the advantages^ that 
they allowed a coinage of dollars in imitation thereof^ but they were 
re-issued at a higher rate than the foreign dollars^ and in a short 
time sank greatly below them, while the foreign money still pre- 
served its purity. Coining dollars is now disallowed by the laws, 
but the common report is, that they are still manufactured in the 
district of Shunlih, south of Canton; it is said, as many as one hun- 
dred workmen are employed in one establishment. These coiners 
practice great deceptions, and are said to have obtained European 
stamps at a considerable expense : their dollars are in common cir- 
culation, and natives of this district are selected as shroffs, or 
judges of it j a book is printed for the use of the public, giving an 
account of each kind of false money; when the dollar is made of 
true value, it is difficult to detect it, but the shroffs can see it at a 
glance. The profits of this mint are so large, that the proprietors 
are enabled to prevent the inteference of the local officers. One 
English mercantile firm at Canton, had a mint there, in which 
Spanish dollars were coined, and from which large profits were 
derived. Gold and silver may not be legally exported from China 
except in limited quantities and in foreign metal. A large amount 
is, however, annually taken away in broken Spanish dollars and 
sycee silver and gold. The gold is chiefly taken as gold leaf, but it 
is also exported in bars and ingots. Gold leaf is used as money ; 
the exchange is seventeen taels of silver, about twenty-two and a 
half dollars per tael of gold. 

Ecsport of Sycee. — A censor from Che-Keang complains of the 
exportation of silver and yellow gold, and that there is no law 
to punish those guilty. By his majesty's directions, the criminal 
board have decided that, in future, the same punishment shall 
be awarded for the exportation of gold and silver as for export- 
ing rice. The board urges that trade with foreigners should 
be in the way of barter ; and as dollars were imported they might 
also be exported. 

The censor of Foo-kein has appealed against this law. He 
states that the people like dollars ; they are so easily counted, and 
can be made of an inferior touch. Dollars are made of sycee 
silver by crafty merchants, similar to the foreign. So that, if the 
law is not altered, all the silver in China may be coined and sent 
away. He, therefore, prays his majesty to attach the same penalty 
for coining dollars as he does to the secret coining of cash ; as 
rice and money are so different in value while the same in bulk, 
that he should increase in the same proportion the punishment for 
exporting silver. Otherwise, the treasures of the land will go forth 
to feed hungry barbarians, and injure China for ever. The export 
of copper and iron affects only military weapons, but that of sUver 
touches the vitals of the empire. 



TOUCH OR FINENESS OF SILYEB. 179 

Sycee silver is the mediiun in which the government taxes and 
duties^ aild the salaries of officers^ are paid ; it is also current 
among merchants in general. The term sycee is derived from two 
Chinese words^ se sze (fine floss silk). This silver is formed into 
ingots^ sometimes called 8hoe9, and in India hoofa^ which are 
stamped with the mark of the person that issues them^ and the 
date of their being issued. The ingots are various in form and 
weighty of one to fifty taels^ but are^ most commonly^ ten taels 
each. Sycee silver is divided into several classes^ according to its 
fineness and freedom from alloy. The kinds most current in Can- 
ton province are the five following : — 

1. Kwatirheang, the hoppo's duties^ or the silver which is for- 
warded to the imperial treasury at Peking. This is always of 
ninety-seven to ninety-nine touch. On all the imperial duties a 
certain per centage is levied^ for the purpose of turning them into 
sycee of this hi^ standard, and of conveying them to Peking 
without any loss in the full amount. This per centage is, how- 
ever, increased by the hoppo to an amount far exceeding what is 
requisite, that he may be enabled to retain the remainder for him- 
self and his dependents. 

2. Fan-koo orfam-foo, the treasurer's receipts, or that in which 
the land tax is paid. This is also of a high standard, but inferior 
to that of the hopp^i's duties, and, being intended for use in the 
province, not for codvevance to Peking, no per centage is levied on 
the taxes which are paid in it. 

8. Yuen-paou or une-po, literally, chief in value. This kind is 
usually imported from Soochow, in large pieces of fifty taels each. 
It does not appear to belong to any particular government tax. 

4. Yen or een-heang, salt duties. It is difficult to account for 
these being of so low a standard, the salt trade being entirely a 
government monopoly. 

5. Wuh-tae or mut-taey the name of which, signifying " un- 
cleansed,^^ or ^'unpurified,'' designates it as the worst of all. 

The immense masses of wealth accumulated by official individuals, 
in a few years, would indicate an abundance of specie in China. 

The property of Keshen, seized after his negotiation with Captain 
Elliott, in 1840-41, and delivered over into the hands of the 
imperial trea3urer for his majesty^s special use was 

682 catties of gold, 
17,940,000 taels of silver, 
11 boxes of jewels, worth unknown. 
This was only the first instalment. 

Muh-Changah, then prime minister, on a second search, confis- 
cated the following effects : — 

1438 large pieces of silver, valued at 60 dollars each, 
6,100 taels, annual rental of property, 
2,561,217 Chinese acres in land, 
independent of houses, shares in pawn-shops, salt works, &c. 

N 2 



IBD CROWN BBVENUES AND LAND-TAX. 

His property^ as first rated, was equiyalent to £8,000,000 ster- 
ling; but, on a subsequent minute calculation, was found of far 
greater value. 

A similar instance to the confiscation of the property of Keshen 
is recorded by Sir George Stanton. 

Hockuntong, or Hoquen, or Hokwan, the celebrated minister of 
China, imder the Emperor Kien-Lung, amassed, before his im- 
peachment by the Emperor Kiaking, in the fourth year of his 
reign, eighty millions of Chinese ounces of silver, or about 
£28,800,000 sterling value, in bullion or gems, which were found 
in his treasury, besides lands, houses, and other immoveable pro- 
perty to an amazing amount. — Sir Oeorge Stanton's Penal Code, 
Appendix, p. 492. 

We have no corrected returns of the specie drain on China. 

The bullion exported from China, in dollars, was calculated, 

1888. 1884. 

2,182,986.. 155,780 

1,074,558.. 1,929,981 

1,479,250.-8,854,280 

140,016.. 277,879 



1830. 


1881. 1882. 


London . . . 961,489 


No returns. 


Calcutta . . . 2,575,981 


ff 


Bombay . . . 2,995,617 


» 


Sundry places 218,885 


99 



Total . . 6,746,872 4,826,755. .6,217,820 

In 1884, there was also shipped of gold, to the value of 518,795 
dollars, making a total export of 6,781,615 dollars, at 4s. 8d. = 
£1,480,468 ; of this sum £1,197,085 was native silver and gold. 

This drain is now largely and annually increased, to provide for 
the payment of opium, and probably amounts to about four million 
sterling. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CROWN REVENUES AND LAND TAX, DEFAL- 

CATIONS, kc. 

Thb whole revenue of China is said to amount to nearly 
60,000,000 pounds sterling annually, of which only 12,000,000 are 
remitted to Peking — ^the remainder is retained in the provinces, 
which appear to be subject to different rates of assessment, accord- 
ing to some defined relative proportions. 



DETAILS OV GOVERNMENT REVENUE. 181 

The landholder is said to be taxed fully one-tenth of the prodace. 
It is npon landed income that all the superannuated officers of 
government^ merchants who have given up trade, all the Tartar 
families, who hold their property under a species of feudal vas- 
salage, and all farmers who are not actually labourers, must be 
supposed to subsist. As there are are no public funds in China, 
the purchase of land is the chief mode of rendering capital pro- 
ductive, and there is no part of the east where the rights of landed 
property are more respected, if we except the acts of the govern- 
ment. 

All lands that remain unproductive are, by the penal code, con- 
fiscated, and the owners punished ; as lands must be registered, the 
discovery is easily made. The taxes are paid both in money and 
kind, and the whole of the taxes on the summer harvest must be 
paid before the end of the seventh moon. The duties on salt pro- 
duce a large revenue, as the quantity of fish cured is enormous, 
and its use is indispensable for rice and vegetables The salt 
merchants are licensed, and are a wealthy and respectable class. 
The penal laws against smuggling salt are, half the value to the 
crown, three-tenths to the informer, and fifty blows of the bamboo 
to the smuggler. 

Dr. Gutzlaff says that the whole revenue of the Chinese empire, 
as stated in their official books, is as follows : — 

Land tax, in money . . . Taek . 63,780,218 

Ditto in kind, valued at 113,898,057 

Salt tax 7,486,880 

Tea duties 204,530 

Duties on merchandise 4,535,459 

Ditto on foreign ditto,* at Canton . . 3,000,000 

Sundries 1,052,706 

Duties on marketable articles . . . 1,174,932 

Ditto on shops and pawnbrokers . . 5,000,000 

Ginseng 1,000,000 

Coinage 1,000,000 

Total .... Taels . 191,804,139 

exclusive of small items and stamp duties. Calculating the tael 
at 6s. 8rf. sterling, this sum would yield annually £63,934,718 
sterling. The indemnity paid us, of 21,000,000 dollars = 
£4,375,000, is, therefore, not equal to the revenue of one month 
of the imperial revenues. A taxation of 63,000,000 sterling 
cannot be considered very large, for four shillings per head on 
300,000,000 people, would yield £60,000,0:0 sterling. There is 
no national debt in China^ and no person would trust the govern- 
ment. 



182 



MOKBT 8T0LXN FBOM THX TBBASV&Y. 



Budget of 1848. Extracted from the Chinese Statistical Tables. 



PROVINCES. 



•BUT TO TBS OAFITAL* 



MONBT TAELl* 



IBIB RICB.* 



Chihle . . . 
Keangioo. 
Ganhway . 
Keangse . 
Chekeang 
Fuhkien • 
Hoopih 
Hoonan . 
Honao... 
Shantung. 
Shanae . . . 
Shenae . . . 



• • •••»•• 



Kaniuh . . 
Szechuen . . 
Kwangtung 
Kwangse . . 
Yunnan . • 
Kweichow 



1,039,941 
2»5.64,728 
1,194,914 
1,602,481 
2,S87,846 
1,055,290 
776,178 
944,432 
2,441,110 
2,780,786 
2,702,285 
1,844,548 

182,644 
806,366 
719,870 
278,559 
188,927 



PROTIlfCIAIi 
TRBAiURT. 

MONET TABLS. 



28,818,146 



1,481,278 

795,068 
678,820 

96,984 

96,314 

221,842 

358,968 



For th« Turkestan 
Garrisons. 
218,550 



227,626 



4,119,885 



1,180,514 
1,471,548 
8,274,688 
795,224 
907,905 
809,880 
865,741 
280,192 
658,928 
748,582 
898,081 
806,121 

138,061 

24,271 

542,608 

113,725 

87,852 

27,056 



12,120,407 



Total in money 85,480,552 taela. 



BEMABKS ON THE FOBEOOING TABLE. 

1. The tax on salt (in Kwantung) amounts to 602^977 taels; 
transit and maritime custom-house duties^ 1^490^981 taels ; for sun- 
dries^ 995^412 taels. The remainder is derived from the land tax. 

2. The Kwantung receipts do not include 864^232 taels, which, 
since the new arrangement, the hoppo at Canton is respon- 
sible for levying upon the foreign trade. The rice, also, which is 
issued to the troops and petty officers of the various provinces, 
fully equal in amount to that sent to the capital, is not contained 
in the statement. 

8. The above is the net revenue of the country ; but the ex- 
penditure of collection, and the extortion and fees, make the taxes 
that are actually levied at least three times as heavy. 

4. No statement of the expenditure is given; but, from the 
repeated reports, as well as the accounts published in the Peking 
Gazette, it would appear that there has been a deficiency in many 
provinces, which the governors and high officers must make good 
by a loan or some other expedient. At Peking, the public money 
was recently so scarce that the necessary repairs of the imperial 
gardens could not be made. 

5. This yearns expenditure is more heavy than that of an 

* The shih of rice is about 2} bushels. 



DBFICIENCY OF IMPERIAL REVENUE. 183 

previous one for various reasons. 1st. Because the millions of 
dollars furnished by various provincial treasuries had to be paid to 
Great Britain. 2nd. Nine million of taels were wanted for the 
repairs of tlie dykes of the Yellow River, the largest amount ever 
required for this purpose. This sum is to be raised by temporary 
loans, a paper currency, and patriotic contributions, which give 
the donor a claim for office : part of this money has been already 
collected. 3rd. Government wanted 2,500,000 taels to reconstruct 
the marine defences and navy, which item has been obtained by 
the sale of offices. 

6. Mine million of taels were stolen from the Imperial 
Treasury. The very circumstance that such an enormous sum of 
money could be abstracted without discovery, shews at once, 
that there must be immense hoards, which are scarcely ever 
touched ; to reimburse the Emperor for his personal loss, all the 
officers that have held a situation for more than thirty years 
at the Treasury, if still alive, or if not, their posterity and families, . 
must pay their respective shares, until the whole is made good. 
Amongst the defaulters are several princes of the blood, whose 
property has been confiscated. 

7. All the colonial possessions and dependencies of China 
require considerable sums for the payment of troops, and the 
subsidy of the Mongol chiefs, as well as the Mantchoo vassals in 
their own country ; all this is paid by the Peking treasury, and 
proves a considerable drain, without the most distant hope of 
recovering the money in ahy way. 

8. Various proposals for raising the revenue to a level with the 
expenditure have been made, but none has yet been finally adopted, 
nor has the ministry published the result of long and frequent 
deliberations. 

(Signed) CHARLES GUTZLAFP. 

Chinese Secretary. 

[Three taels are = £1 sterling; one shih, = 160 pounds; one 
king, = 100 mow; one mow, = 6000 square covids.] 

The revenue of last year has, it is said, immensely fallen short of 
the actual amount required to pay oflf the arrears due since the 
war; so that there remained in October, 1844, taels 38,711,000 to 
be paid. The rice annually ordered has, for the greater part, on 
account of the inundation, not been forwarded to the capital. 

There are sundry branches of revenue which arise from the pro- 
ceeds of pawnbrokers' shops, mercantile establishments, and various 
fees and duties ; there are, moreover, innumerable local items not 
mentioned in the statistical returns, because the mandarins on the 
spot receive them without sending any account ; for this they have, 
however, to keep up a considerable establishment. 

The colonial possessions, instead of yielding a revenue, absorb 



184 IMPERIAL INCOME AND EXPENDITUEB. 

considerable aums. The subsidies paid to the Mongol chiefs^ both 
in money as well as kind| are very large ; the expenditure of the 
army in Turkestan amounts to several millions annually j and to 
keep up the establishments in Mantchouria^ the treasury is con- 
stantly drained. Tibet req^uires only about 200,000 taels annually. 
No returns of these liabilities are ever published. 

It ought always to be kept in mind^ that the sums specified are 
the net revenue^ after the deduction of the expenditure of col* 
lection, so that, in many instances, the stuns actually raised are 
five times more than what is put down here. In the estimate are 
not included the duties on the foreign trade, which are, at the 
lowest, about 3,000,000 taels per aunum. So, also, the monopoly 
in Ginseng, per centage firom the numerous mines, profits from 
coinage, &c., which is the most moderate calculation, does not 
amount to less than 6,000,000 taels per annum, which are paid 
direct to the Emperor. 

Neither has there been calculated about 84,000,000 shih of grain, 
which, according to the regulations, is kept in deposit by govern- 
ment in order to provide against starvation. The people have 
some claim on this, and reap the profits arising from the sale. 
The quantity, moreover, fluctuates very much ; the amount quoted 
is abstracted from a work published about twenty years ago. It 
is difficult to know the totu taxation. 

From the Peking Gazette of the 11th Oct. 1888, we obtain the 
deliberations of the Hoo-poo, or treasury department. It appears 
that during the last few years, the current expenses and outlay 
have exceeded the income more than thirty million taels of silver. 
The deficiency is attributed to the two Mahommedan rebellions ; 
also to the troubles with the mountaineers, in the provinces of 
Kwei-chow ; and to the natural calamities from drought, repairing 
the banks of rivers, &c., so that the land tax was obliged to be re- 
mitted. The plan recommended is the sale of offices for a short 
period, to replenish the treasury. 

The Peking Gazette of Nov. 9th, same year, has a long state- 
ment from Na-sze-kungah, the censor of the province of Keang-se. 
This state document says, that the whole income of the empire, 
from land tax, salt tax, customs and duties, with all the sums paid 
to make them good, does not exceed 40,000,000 of taels ; and that 
the outlav is upwards of 80,000,000. He states, that idthough the 
overplus be not great, were there no deficiencies of income, the 
state machine might go on : but of late years, there has not been 
one in which numerous defalcations in every department have not 
occurred, so that the income has not been adequate for times of 
tranquillity; therefore, on occasions of insurrection and drought, the 
deficiency has amounted to millions. To make good the revenue, 
manv plans have been proposed : one party says, open the mines ; 
nuother, raise the price of salt ; a third is for selling offices, and 
persuading merchants to subscribe towards the waiits of the state; 



PLAN OP ENSICHINO THE TRBASITRY. 185 

thus causing anxiety to the mind of his Jacred majesty^ on whom it 
devolves to balance the advantages and disadvantages of these 
plans, and either reject them at once, or give them a trial, and 
then desist. 

By a secret memorial from the governor of the province of 
Keang-soo (Lin), it appears, that this province pays to the 
revenue (taking its extent) as much again as Che-keang; three 
times as much as Keamg^e:; and ten times as much as Hoo-kwcmg. 
The years of abundance in this province are, probaUy, not one in 
five, and, consequently, the required sum cannot be remitted 
punctually, owing to frequent river inundations. Lin states he 
has received from the Emperor, a letter charging him with neglect 
of duty to government. The statesman, in reply, declares that 
everything has been done to induce the rich to make up the defi- 
ciency for the poor, but that the numerous calls on them for the 
last few years had dried up their resources. He gives the amount 
of voluntary subscriptions for two years of great calamity; the 
third year of the present reign, the amount raised by admonitory 
proclamations to the rich was 1,950,000 taels of silver; and in the 
eleventh year, 1,400,000 taels. He tells the Emperor that cM the 
government possesses comes from the people, and attention to them 
is the first duty of a statesman: but who can withstand natural 
calamities ? 

During the year 1843, one district in Keang-se province re- 
sponded to the urgent call ^to defend the empire, by subscribing 
108,000 taels of silver (nearly £30,000), and 58,000 chon of copper 
(£10,000) ; another district, 27,000 taels of silver, and 87,000 
ehon of copper. A chon (tseen), in the court dialect, is the de-s 
eignation for a string of copper cash which count 10,000. 

The following is a curious memorial to the Emperor of Chiua, 
with a plan of enriching the treasury, and for the establishment of 
a property tax in China: — 

'^ Your slave Keen^en the lord mayor of Moukden, comes kneeling 
and beseeching of your majesty to give a sacred glance to a plan I 
submit for enriching the royal treasury. The sacred favors be- 
etowed on your slave in making him lord mayor, induce him to 
give your majesty his opinion on what he has seen and carefully 
inquired into; your slave approaches the subject with caution, in 
mining changes in old regidations, but the great deficiency in the 
revenue from the late plunder, and the large sums required for 
maritime fortifications and hydraulical works, I find amounts to 
many tons of myriads of taels, and I hope my plan will give per- 
manency and respectability to the state and fresh life to the people. 
In devising this plan, I am like one groping in the dark, but the 
honour and esteem I have for your majesty, are my only apology. 
The four following measures are the result of my best judgment and 
anxious enquiries : — 

'^ Ist. All bonds held by the people, for bouse taxes^ to be can- 



186 IMPOSITION OF ▲ PB0F8BTT-TAX. 

celled. I have noticed with astonishment the great quantity of 
goods stored in the shops and dwellings ; in towns and suburbs 
it exceeds belie! The law hitherto has given the taxes to two wings 
of the Tartar army^ and great fraud and extortion are practised, and 
smuggling to a great extent, which must greatly aifect the revenue. 
Fraudulent mortgages and sham sales are practised to evade the 
taxes ; I beg to (M&ll the attention of the board of requests, or have 
an officer of high standing appointed, whose sole duty would be to 
look after these things, or empower the poUce to give in a correct 
return of aU inhabitants and the number of houses ; remit all the 
old bonds, and call on the people to repair instantly to the man- 
darins, and honestly state the value of their property, and pay three 
per cent, on the whole, for which they will get a seal on their bonds 
to protect tliem from other extortions ; if mortgaged, the mort- 
gagee to pay the taxes. After a fixed period, all defaulters to have 
their property confiscated. This will be best for all parties, as it 
will give the people security against extortions and law suits, and 
restore every farthing of the duties. The clerks and officers must 
be strictly looked after ; if my plan be carried out the people will not 
practice frauds, neither should the inferior officers be allowed to 
extort money, and apply it to their own use ; strict attention will 
save great confrision. All violators of this law to be prosecuted 
with severity, which will have a good effect. 

'^ 2nd. That all taxes should be increased except the land tax, as 
an increase there would bear on the poorer classes : but all shop- 
keepers, markets, bazaars, and merchants who sell goods by weight, 
derive a much larger profit than those who till the ground; pawn- 
brokers are very numerous, and I find they only, Uke others, pay 
about five taels per annum; coal mines, iron works, and large 
mercantile houses, pay even less. Pawnbrokers should cheerfully 
pay the increase. As to the tea diops, I would strongly advise the 
governors to look to them, and report accordingly. 

" 8rd. Provincial fees should be transferred to the public trea- 
sury. I, your slave, held appointments in Chih-le, and other places, 
and know that all magistrates and others, receive fees, and volun- 
tary contributions under various names, and expend it in public 
works, which your treasurer has accounted for ; but for the present, 
I would stop all public works, and have the fees sent to the capital. 
The mandarins' salaries I would reduce, and remit the amount, and 
cause a strict enquiry as to the amoimt of those fees ; after paying 
the army expenses, the balance should be paid into the state trea- 
sury. 

''4th, The mandarins or collectors of the taxes are behindhand 
in paving them in, and when urged to do so make sundry excuses 
and delays, notwithstanding there is a period fixed. Look to this 
matter without delay, as they frequently turn bankrupts, or pre- 
tend to be so, to avoid payment, and often propose paying by in- 
stalments. May I request that this system will be stopped, and no 



r- -^--^ THKEE HTJNSJUSD TONS OP SILVER STOLEN. 187 

instalment taken, bat that their secority and themselves be made 
pay at once ; this would be acting severely and mercifiMy ; great 
severity must be nsed. When I was prefect under Taoukwang 
(1834), a deficiency was discovered, and I demanded from the high 
inspector 1,000 taels and sent them to yonr treasury, and the re- 
mainder soon followed. I, your slave, have drawn up this statement 
with a view of enriching the treasury, and stupid as I am I hope 
they are suited to the occasion, and humbly beg your instructions 
thereon/' 

Answer written with vermillion pencil, saying the Board would 
consult about it. " Respect this/* 

October, 1843. 

Dr. Gutzlaff states that there were abstracted firom the imperial 
treasury, when alarm was spread of the British army proceeding to 
Peking, in 1842, 9,252,000 taels of diver, about 2,000,000 sterling, 
or 250 tons of silver. On the 19th day of the 5th month, an im* 
perial edict appeared to the following effect : '^ An extensive de« 
ficiency was discovered in the treasury; kings and other high 
ministers w«re ordered to investigate it, and have famished me 
with a list of officers and auditors that have successively held ap- 
pointments in the treasury, and it appears they are all abandoned 
characters concerned in this affair, and must be severely punished, 
as an example, and to maintaui the law. We direct that all the 
officers in this list shall be prosecuted, and we direct that all Tartar 
mandarins in office or on leave, shall be first degraded, and a list 
taken of them, likewise the sons and grandsons of such as are dead, 
whether in office or not, and handed over to Muchangah for pun- 
ishment. Respect this,** 

Imperial edict the second has been received to the following 
effect : " We have appointed from time to time, kings and high 
ministers to superintend the receipts and disbursements of our re* 
venue ; and this year we made an addition of two, a Mantchoo and 
a Chinese ; these high officers were instructed to examine with great 
care into all matters, and we find they are aU blind and stupid. 
Changchingpaon, a high treasury officer, has made away with the 
public money, and we sent a great minister to inquire into it, and 
his report reached me this day, and it states the deficiency to amount 
to the enormous sum of 9,250,000 taels of silver I Never was the 
like known, and on hearing it my anger knows no bounds ; only 
think of them acting like common tlueves of the country ! This 
peculation has been going on many years, and the niunber in office 
has been great; but still a strict investigation must take place, 
otherwise some of them will escape. I find, ever since the reign 
of Keaking, (1801,) the mandarin)^ in the treasury have all been 
blood relations, but some of them were ministers of high rank, and 
not one of them has ever denounced the plunder : tiiey ought to 
be ashamed of such conduct. I blame myself for not seeing to 
it, and my mortification is exceedingly great. I direct that they 



188 PEBSSUKE ON THB TRBABUSY. 

be handed over to the board that will be appointed, and well 
punished^ and that said board enquire, and report the best means 
of recovering, and making the deficiency good by fines, &c. &c« 

'' Respect this/' 

[The result of this measure, as preyiouslv stated, has been that 
every treasurer, since the year, 1801, or tneir descendants, have 
been required to make good the defalcation of 9,252,000 taels of 
silver.] 

A careful analysis of the Peking Gazette throws much light ou 
the mechanism and policy of the Chinese government, at home and 
abroad, as it is the organ of government, and the only publication 
of the kind permitt^ in the empire. A selection of extracts, re- 
lative to the state of the revenue, indicates that there is consider- 
able pressure on the imperial and local treasury. 

The system of lending money adopted by the Chinese govern- 
ment, is believed to be carried on upon a very extensive scale. It is 
said that several of the imperial palaces at Peking, are wholly 
supported by the interest which is paid by the salt and other 
merchants, who from time to time are compelled to borrow money 
from the government. This system has been brought to light 
from translations which have been made from the government 
gazette : among these are memorials from merchants, stating 
their inability to pay the interest^ and quiets from the Emperor^ 
stating that the superintendents of the palaces, to whom the 
interest is paid towards the expenses of these establishments^ are 
seriously inconvenienced by this want of punctuality. 

Finances. May, 1844, the Board of Revenue have furnished a 
schedule of all the out-standing debts in the provinces. Answers 
have been received from the local authorities, declaring their in- 
ability to satisfy the demands, and praying further time. 

1844. Proposals have been received by the Board of Revenue to 
lay on transit duties on the cattle that pass the frontiers from 
Mantchouria and Mongolia. It is 3tated that the sheep alone 
amount to some millions of heads annually. 

Pwanshegan, at present minister of finance, has submitted a list 
of Mantchoo defaulters who have not paid in the sums which they 
were sentenced to furnish, in order to make good the 9,252,000 
taels of silver which were embezzled lately from the treasury. 
They are to be deprived of their situations, and imprisoned until 
every tael is paid. 

1844. A memorial from the mandarin of the province of Keang- 
soo, stating that they are unable to collect in the whole amount of 
the revenue. Ordered that the mandarins make good the re- 
mainder. " Respect this ! *' 

The Board of Revenue ordered, that all who generously contribute 
to the exigences of the country, and repairs of the rivers, should 
obtain a receipt, which wiU certify their claim to favour and emolu- 



BBEAKINQ OPEN MONET CHESTS. 189 

ment. Provincial officers are ordered to make mont}iIy returns of 
the sums paid into their respective treasury. Likewise all man- 
darins in arrear shall be instantly degraded. Regulations have 
been prepared to fill up their offices. The expedient is desperate^ 
but the case is urgent — " so tremble I" 

The Board of Revenue has requested the Emperor to ordert hat 
all the money to be levied in the shape of voluntary contributions 
and patriotic gifts, should be exacted with rigour. It was first pro- 
posed that Hoopih and Canton provinces^ only^ should be called on. 
Unfortunately, other large expenses were rendered necessary by 
the overflowing of the Yellow River, amounting to 800,000 taels of 
silver. The emperor now calls on the whole realm to famish the 
means of constructing dykes. No extortions will be allowed, but 
his majesty will be enabled to distinguish the real friends of the 
country by their generosity. '' Respect tfdsJ^ 

Imperial Treasury. A second attempt has been made to break 
open the money chests in the Imperial Palace ; strict inquiry is in- 
stituted, and condign punishment threatened. 

1845. Board of Revenue, ordered that 27,800 taels be granted 
for the repairs of the dykes in Shan-tung province. The same 
Gazette publishes an ordinance, calling on all merchants who had 
borrowed money from the public treasury, instantly to pay up the 
arrears of interest, to enable government to procure lighters, in 
order to unload part of the rice junks in their progress to the 
capital, where the water is shallow. 

Ordered that 131,000 taels be placed at interest^ for defiraying 
the expenses of the Imperial Palace of Jeho. Surplus of revenue 
from one of the custom stations, above the first annual amount, 
27,056 be placed in the household treasury; 223 taels to be given 
as a present to the collector. 

The Yellow River is a source of uneasiness almost every year, 
and for the repair of its banks voluntary subscriptions are raised. 
The last colledions only amounted to 848,000^000 cash. This sum 
fell short to finish the works, and complaint is made to the go- 
vernor of the river, and he petitioned his Majesty to receive the 
cash at the rate 1,300 per tael, (that is about six shillings sterling), 
and prayed that his Majesty will distribute rank and emolument 
to the generous contributors to this necessary imdertaking. 

When the canals suffer from the flood, the Emperor decrees that 
all magistrates along whose districts the banks had been destroyed 
should be degraded, but remain in office^ and repair, with their own 
money^ the damage. 

The superintendent of Teentsin harbour, had entrusted to his 
care a large amount of subscriptions to build war junks, and put 
the harbour in a good state of defence. His embezzlement and 
extortions were represented, and his Majesty ordered him to be 
degraded until the defalcations were made good. The governor of 



ISO FINAHCIAt atfBABAAMMBKTS YOB BITBB DTKBS. 

the rivers hfta made a personal inspection to ascertain the damage 
done hj the floods of 1844^ and demands 288^790 tads of silver to 
commence the works. 

The capital of the fertOe province of Honan was again under 
water^ and the whole of the walls levelled. The lieutenant-governor 
commenced raising subscriptions, which were responded to ; the 
Emperor was so lughljr pleased that he rewarded the author, and 
desired that the principal contributors be promoted to situations. 

The governors and lieutenant-governors who have been dismissed 
for neglect in not seeing to the state of the canals and rivers, by 
which so much damage had been caused, petitioned his Majesty 
for forgiveness. The answer denied that they had any claim on 
his Majesty's clemency, as they had occasioned enormous expenses 
to the state. For immediate wants, the sum of 800,000 tads were 
granted, and his Majesty called on all the neighbouring provinces 
m which the calamity had occurred, to send in their portion of this 
sum, and thus exhibit their loyalty and attachment to his throne. 
The same Gkizette has a petition firom the superintendent of the 
pleasure seat of his majesty at Zehol, complaining of the dilapidated 
state of the walls of this once magnificent estate, and praving that 
sometlung maybe done to save the pleasure grounds and gEffdens 
from ruin : the stags, he states, have free access to the gardens. 

1844, September, Dreoiuty. — ^A strict investigation for the 
recovery of the lost nine millions of taels, has ended in the dis- 
covery of the strong boxes containing the silver being in a very 
decayed state, and the sycee had gradually dropped out. This 
subterfuge, however, has availed nothing, and several members of 
the imperial household, who were under heavy liabilities, have been 
obliged to discharge them. 

Upon the representation of Hwuy the governor of rivers, sub- 
scriptions to the amount of nine miUion of tads, were last year 
raised, in order to reconstruct the dykes. Since now, however, the 
injury done by the inundation is fax greater, new measures are 
necessary. It is therefore proposed to levy additional sums, during 
the space of a year, upon the same prindples as in the maritime 
provinces (by bestowing offices upon the subscribers.) 

The whole money contributed is five million by merchants, and 
six million by the gentry and people. Of this the salt merchants 
at Canton subscribed 1,200,000 taels, which has been applied for 
military purposes. Of 2,400,000 taels subscribed, 1,000,000 was 
to be used for the repair of dykes, and in three instalments within 
six years to be repaid. The merchants of Chekeang furnished 
1,600,000 taels, of which above 120,000 were ajq^^lied to the dykes, 
and the money will be reftmded just as the above. The Loo tra- 
ders subscribed 400,000 tads, and paid up 60,000 taels, which is to 
be restored by the gabel within five years. 

The money in Shanse for which rank was bought, amounts to 
above 1,600,000 taels; in Shense to above 1,000,000; in Chih-li 



PROPOSED ISSUE OF TREASURY BILLS. 191 

870,000 taels. As for Canton and other provinces from 840,000 
to 800,000 taels. The sums however coUected in the maritime 
provinces, are to be retained there and applied for military 
purposes. 

This proposal is adopted, that the merchants and people might 
have time to collect the sums within the space of a year, but by no 
means to distress the nation. 

Leyanking, a member of the censorate entrusted with the super- 
vision of the river, has reported, that considering the immense 
expenditure necessary for the repairs of the hydraulic works, and 
the difficulty of procuring the money, and even when this is 
obtained, the ruinous exchange that hence arises, proposes that 
henceforth treasury bills be issued in lieu of payment. This pten 
did not succeed under the Ming and Sung dynasties; but to 
obviate the difficulties and the rapid faU of the value of paper money, 
the revenue is to receive the assignats and immediately to destroy 
them. 

Muhchangah and others have submitted various proposals made 
by Keying, which bear upon the subject of collecting duties ; 
and the privy council as well as the board of revenue having 
taken them into consideration, and submitted them with their 
opinions thereon to the Emperor, they are approved of and 
confirmed. 

1. The amount of fixed duties to be sent to the capital by the 
Canton maritime custom house was 899,064 taels ; and besides a 
surplus of about 1,000 to 40,000 taels. However, since now the 
trade will be carried on in the other four ports, the receipts at 
Canton will fall short of that sum, and therefore Fuchoo and the 
other emporiums, must, after having realized their respective quotas, 
make up the deficit of Canton. 

2. In order to fix the whole amount of duties of the other 
ports, three years must pass before a true estimate can be made. 
It will then be determined, how much each port according to the 
respective receipts of money can isupply to Canton. 

3. All extra chaises, although formerly paid into the public 
treasury, are at once abolished. 

4. Chn every 1,000 taels sent to the board of revenue, there 
was formerly a per centage of 15 taels, and the recent extra charge 
of 25 taels is for that very purpose. There were> moreover, 55,000 
taels paid in tribute, and 100,000 taels as an equivalent for the 
ginseng, and these sums were ferwaided by the Hong merchant to 
the court establishment, besides 4,000 to 80,000 taek made over to 
the inspector of grain for charitable purposes by the same indivi- 
duals, and sundry fees to the Hoppo and his people. 

Since the Cohong, however, is now done away with, the tribute 
must be paid fi*om the surplus of the stated duties. As for the 
ginseng, which at the rate of 700,000 taels, the value to be sti- 
pulated, if paid by the said merchants would within four years 



192 FINANCIAL BMBASBASSIIBNTS. — ^DOWNFAL. 

amount to 2,800^000 taela ; it must now be sold for whatever it will 
feteli. The Hoppo, moreover, must make arrangements to provide 
for the other items, and manage matters accorduiglv* 

6. A sum of about 120 to 180,000 taels was hitherto kept in 
reserve, to be transmitted to the court in presents and for other 

Surposes. As now, however, the sources whence the money was 
erived are exhausted, the Hoppo must in future manage this 
matter. 

6. The dutjr on raw silk now fixed at 10 taels per picul is less 
than it was formerly. And the five ports being now open, mer- 
chants will go with this article to the nearest market. But they 
must make up the loss of the transit duties, which otherwise would 
have been paid, if they had proceeded to Canton, in whatsoever 
port they sell their cargo. 

7. Tea, raw and wrought silks, were hitherto prohibited to be 
exported by sea. But under existing circumstances, every junk 
that navigates the ocean, shaU pay upon them the same duty as 
foreign vessels, to prevent their smuggling these articles on board 
the ships. 

8. Every other part of the native trade, is to be carried on ac- 
cording to the old regulations without the least change. 

9. All fees and payments to the inmates of the custom house 
are entirely annulled, and the superintendents ought henceforth to 
provide for their whole establishment. 

Taoukwang, 28rd year, 7th intercalary month, 21st day, — 14th 
September, 1848. 

1845, Formosa, — From a recent investigation, it appears that 
during the late severe storm above 8,000 human beings lost their 
lives by the immense floods and inroads of the sea. On the whole 
coast there prevail much destitution and misery, the fields having 
been rendered unfit for cultivation by the sea water. It does not 
yet appear what measures the mandarins have taken for alleviating 
the sufferings of the poor islanders. They have been again com- 
manded by the court to furnish a true statement of the damage 
done both to the people and public buildings. One of the leading 
men in the island has declared that ** the government can only 
levy taxes with the consent of the people,'^ and he has refused 
payment of the imposts. 

Every thing I heard and saw in China, impressed on my mind 
the conviction that the finances of the empire are in a most 
wretched state, and that corruption pervades the officers entrusted 
with the collection and appropriation of the resources of the 
state. In all kingdoms, and in every age, financial embarrassments 
are the sure precursors of the downfal of a nation^ or of the 
dynasty or administration who rules its destinies. 



19S 



CHAPTER VII. 

TRADITION, HISTORY, AND DYNASTIES OF CHINA 
FOR THREE THOUSAND YEARS. 



Central Asia was most probably the cradle of tbe human race ; 
man was placed hj his Creator in a temperate region, abounding 
in aU the products of the earth, adapted for the foundation of 
great kingdoms, and affording &cilities for dispersion when aug- 
menting population pressed on the means of subsistence, or the 
desire for change stimxdated an emigration to distant countries. 

The Chinese are supposed to be a branch of the great Scythian 
family, who entered China from the north-west, gradually drove 
the aborigines before them, occupied in separate states the most 
fertile and eligible spots, until they reached the tropic of Capricorn, 
and after the usual strife and bloodshed incident to small com- 
munities, finaUy were consolidated into one empire. The Scythians 
may have penetrated to the '^ far east'' before ^they became known 
in the west, which was about the year 630 b.c, when they ad- 
vanced with their conquering hordes to the borders of Egypt. The 
Scythians would appear to have been the common parents of the 
Tartars, the Mongolians, and other races that afterwards spread 
themselves over the northern and eastern portions of Asia. 

In craniologieal formation — ^ui language, habits, and character— 
the Chinese are a distinct people firom any of the other inhabitants 
of Asia, to whom, in aU these particulars, they bear less resemblance 
than they do to the European races. 

B.C. 2,204j is the utmost extent to which Chinese tradition ex- 
tends. Tliis was about 140 years after the Flood ; and supposing 
the human family had increased to a degree that required them to 
migrate, the Chinese may have separated from the parent stock, 
after their dispersion, and, diverting their course to the eastward, 
colonized on the Yellow River. 

Their first great Emperor, Pohi, (supposed to be identical with 
Noah), is said to have settled in the province of Shen-se, which 
is the north-western part of the empire, and includes the ancient 
Serica, also the country of Sirue. 

His length of reign is reputed to have been 115 years ; he in- 
vented everything useful, and appointed a prime minister and four 
mandarins to govern the four provinces. His successor, Shin- 
Nong, reigned 146 years, and invented the plough, the same as it ex- 
ists at the present day. In physical knowledge he was said to be an 

o 



194 STATE OF THE SMPIBE UNDER TAO, 

adept. Whang-iiy tlie third emperor, was also highly gifted, could 
speak when a year old, reigned at ten years, and invented the com-' 
pass* at fifteen. This sample is given of Chinese history, as the 
best means of disabusing those who are inclined to place reliance 
on their fables. 

Yu, or Yao, the founder of the first dynasty (b.c. 2204), is said 
to haye devoted his whole life to the draining of the land ; and for 
thirteen years he never entered his own house, would rise from his 
food and listen to complaints, and thrice he tied up his hair, while 
in the bath, to answer some urgent call; by this means he set an 
example to his subjects of attending to business first, and pleasure 
afterwards. 

Meng-tse, the Chinese historian, gives an account of the state of 
the empire under the Emperor Yao, ^' The country presented only 
a desert, and the men were mere savages. The empire was not 
formed ; the lowlands were covered with stagnant water, the re- 
mains of inundation ; those parts which were not stiU submerged, 
were covered with trees and bushes, and were the haunt of wild 
beasts. 

" Yao set fire to the forests, in order to clear the ground, and drive 
the wild animals off. China was at this period ordy a residence for 
serpents and dragons ; the people had no fixed dwelling-places, but 
were compelled to shelter themselves on trees, when in the low 
country, and in caves when among the mountains.^' 

Such are the terms that the Chinese philosopher Meng-tse uses 
in describing the state of his country, centuries subsequent to 
the time that some credulous authors would make people believe 
that it was a flourishing and populous empire. 

Formosa, although within twenty leagues of China, was not 
known until the 15th century. 

Manufacture of cotton is not spoken of in China until one or two 
centuries before the Christian era, from which period to the sixth 
century, the cotton cloth, which was either paid in tribute, or 
offered in presents to the Emperor, is always mentioned as a thing 
rare and precious. 

It is recorded in the annals of China, that the Emperor You-ti, 
who reigned a.d. 602, had a robe of cotton. Up to the eleventh 

* Du Halde gives*the[foIIowing account of the discovery of the compass : — '* The Em- 
peror Hoang-ti beings at war with Tehi^ Yeeutt and perceiving that thick fogs saved the 
enemy from his punuit, and that the soldiers rambled out of the way, and lost the 
course of the wind, made a car which showed them the four cardinal points; by this 
method he overtook the enemy, made him prisoner, and put him to death. The same 
author says, that certain ambassadors from afar, after they had taken leave in order to 
return to their own country, were given by the Emperor TcheoU'Kong, an instrument 
which on one side pointed to the north, and on the opposite side towards the south, to 
direct them better on their way home, supposed to be Cochin China. This instrument 
was called Tchi-nan, which is the same name by which the Chinese call the sea-com- 
pass. This is said to have occurred in the twenty- second Cycle = 1040 b.c« 

Remusat, whose able translations are worthy of credit, adduces strong arguments 
§gainst the supposed knowledge of the mariner^' compass at so early a date in China. 



IXYENTION OF THB COMPASS. 195 

century, the cotton tree appears to have been a garden shmb^ as 
there are several poems in praise of its beautiful flowers. After 
the Mongol Tartars conquered China, in 1280, great encourage- 
ment was given by government to the culture and manufacture of 
cotton, although it was much opposed by the people, who considered 
it an innovation; about 1370, the progress of this new branch was 
rapid, and at present nine-tenths of the population are clothed in 
its fabrics. 

Of the eighteen provinces into which China is now divided, fully 
one-half were occupied by wandering savages, who had never been 
under any control, the other half was roamed over by pastoral 
tribes, with here and there a city or large camp, which had been 
dignified into the name of kingdoms. 

Prom the constant strife that existed between the rival sove- 
reigns, it must have taken a long time to have united the nume- 
rous petty kingdoms in the present extensive empire. If the civi- 
lization and refinement of the Chinese had an existence, at so early 
a period, it would have been known to other ancient nations. 

No reliance can be placed on the semi-historical period, which 
French authors have endeavoured to pass for authentic. The 
Chinese chronological system or cycle, was said to be established 
by the Emperor Hwang-te in the sixty-first year of his reign, b.c 
2687. 

The cycle of sixty years was said to have been then invented by 
an individual named Ta-naou : seventy-four of these cycles were 
said to have been completed a.d. 1803, making 444D years.* 

• The year 1839 corresponds to the year kchait or the 86th year of the 75th Chi- 
nese cycle of sixty, which is the 19th year of Taou-kwang, and commences on the Itt of 
February. 

The Chinese cyc]e of sixty is said to have been invented by an individual named 
Ta-naoUf who lived under the reign of the Emperor Hwang-te, and its use commences 
with the 61st year of that monarch, 2637 years b.c. The Chinese compute also by the 
year of the reigning Emperor, frequently joining to it that of the cycle. Formerly, 
when the Emperors often changed their titular names or designations, this plan 
must have been very inconvenient, as every few years a new epoch commenced, with- 
out any change of reign. But for some centuries past, the Emperors have usually 
retained the same designations throughout the whole period of their continuance on 
the throne. 

The Chinese year is ]uni*solar, consisting of twelve lunar months, to which an 
intercalary month is added, when requisite to preserve correspondence with the solar 
year. 

The rule respecting the intercalary month is this : that when, during a lunar month, 
the sun does not enter any sign of the zodiac, that month is intercalary ; and the year 
consequently contains thirteen instead of twelve months. 

The year commences on the new moon nearest to the fifteenth degree of Aquarius. 
It is corrected according to the solar year, by the use of twenty-four terms, or half 
months, called Tsee, eacti of which expresses the period of the sun's passage through 
the half of a zodiacal sign. The names applied to those terms, like those of the 
French revolutionary months, have a reference in their meaning to the season of the 
year. 

They date from the commencement of the reign of each successive sovereign ; thus 
they write " Taoukwang, 26th year, lOth month, I9th day," corresponding to 19th 
November 1846. The age of a person is reckoned from the number of years of the 
cycle that have elapsed since his name and birth were registered, which has the effect 

o2 



196 CHRONOIiOGICAL 8T8TEM. — CTCUB. 

China could not be considered an empire, or have any pretensions 
to a universal rule or dominion at tlie early period alleged. Ma- 
tumn-Hn, reputed a good authority, says that when Ching-tang 
founded the second dynasty, (1766 b.c.) called the Shang, the 
liUmbor of feudal principalities was three thouiand; and that there 
were five sorts of fiefs, forming in the whole '' one thousand, seven 
hundred and seventy-three principalities/' 

Ching-tang, the founder of the second dynasty, (b.c. 1768) is said 
to have " ruled the people gently, removed many oppressions, and 
lent a willing ear to the wants of the people, so that all confided in 
his judgment.^' 

It was during this Emperor's reign that the seven years famine 
from drought occurred, and the Emperor was called on to propiti- 
ate heaven, and offer up prayers. 

History relates that he fasted, cut off his hair and nails ; and 
binding his body with white reeds, which was the symbol of a 
sacrifioal animal, thus went into a lonesome place, confessing his 



of making the affe appear greater than it is in reality ; a child, for inatance, horn os 
the last £iy of the year will be described as two years old, as it is considered to have 
lived in two years of the cycle. Several classes of characters are employed for 
chronological purposes. The most ancient and most generally used, eonsist of two sets 
of characters : the one called ihih kan, the ' ten stems,' or teen kan, the celestial stems,' 
includes ten characters, the other set, called thih-urh ehe, the ' twelve branches,' and 
te eh$i the * terrestrial branches,' consists of twelve characters. 
■ These characters are applied to years, months, days, and hours, as well as to the 
points of the compass. For chronological purposes, they have been combined so as to 
form a cvcle of sixty. In this cvcle, the ' ten stems' occurring six times, and the 
* twelve Drenches' five times, both sets terminate in the number sixty, and the cycle 
is thus completed. The method of combination is this,— ^^a, the first of the ten, is 
joined to /Me, the first of the twelve, and read kea-tsxe, which denotes the first year, 
month, &c. of the cycle. In the same manner, the second year is yih-choWf — the 
tenth year, kwei-yew,~-<he twelfth vear, yih-hae, and so on up to sixty, which- is desig- 
nated by the characters kw$i-ha$, the last of each set. 

For the hours of the day, the * twelve branches' are used singly. The civil day of 
twenty-four hours is divided into twelve periods of two hours each, called MJie-akin, 
which are designated by the characters of twelve branches, in the following manner :— 

11 to 1, or midnight, tsze ; 1 to 3, (4th watch,) chow ; 3 to 5, (6th watch,) yin ; £> to T* 
maou ; 7 to 9, shin ; 9 to 11, sze ; 11 to 1 or noon, woo ; 1 to 3, we ; 8 to 5, shin ; 
6 to 7, yew : 7 to 9, (1st watch,) seuh ; 9 to 11, (2nd watch,) hae. 

3y prefixing to these characters the words eking and keaout these twelve periods are 
divided into twenty-four hours ; each of which is subdivided into four Mh or quarters. 
Thus, ching'tsxe denotes midnight, or from 12 to 1 o'clock ; while keaou-tsze denotes 
from 11 till 12, ching-ttz$ yih kih denotes a quarter past 12 at night. 

The night, from 7 o'clock in the evening to 5 in the morning, is also divided 
into five kangf or watches, each watch consisting of one the-thin, or period of two 
hours. 

In reference to the compass, Tsze is the north, Woo the south, Maou the east, and 
Ytuf the west The other eight are intermediate points between these. 

The following terms, which are the names of twenty-eight constellations, are also 
employed to designate davs. 

1 keo ; 2 kang ; 3 te ; ifang ; 5 sin ; 6 wei ; 7 ke ; 8 tow; 9 new ; 10 neo ; 11 heu / 

12 wei ; 18 shih ; 14 peih ; 15 kwei ; 16 loo ; 17 wei ; 18 mooti; 19 peih ; 20 tsie ; 
21 tsan ; 22 tsing ; 2d kwei ; 24 lew, 25 ting ; 26 chang ; 27 yih ; 28 chin. 

These characters being applied in regular order to the days of the month, foor 
of them (those printed in italics) always mark the weekly sabbath, while the othera 
designate the week days respectively. 



DYNASTIES BEFQBE THE CHSI8TIAN ERA. 197 

errors^ sayings '^Let not the lives of the people be forfeited^ on 
account of the neglect of one individual. Is it that my govern- 
ment is extravagant^ or that my palaces are too grand^ or that the 
wants of the people are not attended to ?^' When he had ceased 
prayings the rain is said to have fallen in great abundance^ and to 
the distance of several thousand miles. 

1153 B.C. A remarkable character^ Chaw^ is said to have ruled 
the empire at this period; he was a tyrant by disposition^ endowed 
with supernatural strength, and was ruined by the fascinations of 
a wicked woman. 

This portion of Chinese history agrees with that assigned in 
sacred history to Sampson. 

Ven-Vanff was the first sovereign of the Tcheou dynasty, whose 
reign began b.c. 1122. This prince and his son Vou-Vang reigned 
over the country round about Sy-gan-foo, in the province of 
Shen-se. 

According to this their territories could not have been very 
extensive, as it is alleged in their more modem history that this 
very province was in possession of barbarians. The first origin of 
large cities and towns, was in order to keep in subjection the 
barbarians as they conquered them; so that their own history gives 
the credit of building them to the Han dynasty. 

Chififf-Vang the successor of Vou-Vanff, after consulting the 
oracles, according to their dictation built a city at a place called 
Fong, which was the centre of the world; tlus city is alleged to 
have been built in six days b.c 1109, and was probably little better 
than a camp. 

. ^'One of the causes,^' saysM. de Guignes, ''which have led the 
Chinese into great errors with regard to the ancient state of iheir 
country, is the having given to their ancient characters the accepta- 
tion which they did not acquire till later times. 

'^ The characters which are now translated by the words emperor j 
province, city, and palace, meant no more in former time than 
chief of tribe, district, camp, and house: these simple meanings 
did not flatter their vanity suflBciently, and they therefore preferred 
employing terms which would represent thdr ancestors as rich and 
powerful, and their empire as vast and flourishing in the first year 
of its foundation, as if by magic.'' 

This learned and judicious writer says, their early history '' is 
entirely destitute of facts, extremely uncertain ; in a word, so far 
from this empire having had an existence 8,000 years before the 
Christian era, it has not been united together in a durable manner 
above 529 years b.c." 

Writers of the last century who wished to cast discredit on the 
Mosaic narrative, readily propagated ideas of the remote antiquity 
of the Chinese, which are fabulous^ and at variance with Sacred 
Writ« A discussion on this subject would, therefore, be out of 
place ; it may, however, be safely asserted that China is the oldest 



198 DURATION or CHINESE SHflBB. 

empire extant^ and that it has had existence as a civilised govern- 
ment for more than two thousand prears. 

It is stated by Chinese historians, that Confiicios wrote two 
histories, the Shoo^Hng (book of records) and the Chun^tsewi the 
former ends b.c. 722, and the latter commences. 

The Chun-taew, or history of his own times, is represented by 
characters to denote ^' Spring (youth) and Autumn'' (age). This 
favours the opinion that the sage was unwilling to perpetuate 
fabulous narratives, or stamp them with his authority. 

The histoiy of his own time consists of dry details of the twenty* 
one indepenaent kingdoms, or principalities, into which China was 
then divided. 

TTie Shoo^kinffy which professes to give the several dynasties in 
regular order, does not state the number of Emperors of the Hea, 
or first dynasty, (b.c 2206 to 1766,) its duration, or the number 
of years each Emperor reigned. The same omission is observable 
in regard of the Shang dynasty. Some Chinese historiographers 
give the duration varying firom 644 to 446 years. 

M. Biot has lately translated (1848) the Shoo^king, — ''Book of 
Odes" which is undoubtedly the production of Confucius, and 
met the fate of all the other ancient writings ; but, being in metri- 
cal pieces, was retained in the memory of the people, and more 
likely to be authentic. 

M. Biot says, ''it is evident that this collection exhibits the 
manners of the ancient Chinese in their purest state of nature, 
and which are seen more easily than in the historical works, where 
the facts are often buried under long i moral discourses.'' The 
book has reference to a period antecedent to the Christian env 
about six centuries. 

Their dress is thus described : — Officers of state had six kinds of 
dress; the princes had seven. The court dress was woollen, em<« 
broidered with silk; some courts adopted various fars to adorn 
their dresses. The officers of the court wore a red collar to their 
robe. The nobility wore various colours, except red, which was 
imperial ; the caps were of skin (fur) ; the girdles of silk, fastened 
by a clasp. The farmers wore straw hats tied with ribbons ; the 
women wore undyed cloth, and a veil or cap. 

The toilette was furnished with a mirror made of metal. Ladies 
of rank plaited or frizzled their hair on each side of the head. 
The children of the rich wore in their girdle an ivory needle, which 
they made use of to untie a knot when they disrobed. Both men 
and women anointed their hair or head. 

The walls of the houses were of earth. The soil was beaten 
hard, and upon the beaten foundation of the intended wall was 
placed a frame of four planks, two of which corresponded to the 
two faces of the wall; the frame was filled up with moistened 
earth, which is the mode of the present day. The doors were of 



EARLY SEAT OF GOVERNMENT. 199 

wood, except tliose of the very poorest, who stopped up the en- 
trance, in winter, with mud. 

Their chief subsistence depended on the chase, which consisted 
of wild fowl, boars, wolves, foxes, deer, and wild cattle (buffaloes). 

The agricultural productions were the same as those of the pre- 
sent day; as were also the various metals, such as gold, silver, iron, 
lead and copper. 

From a very remote period the court or government of China 
was held in the province of Shan-se : and, it is the general opinion, 
that the foundation of the empire was laid on the banks of the 
Yangtzekang and the Hwang-ho rivers; that from thence the 
people spread themselves first in a northerly direction, and that 
the province of Shan-se was chosen, because it enabled the Emperor 
to oppose the barbarians from the northern regions. 

An erroneous impression has prevailed that there has long been 
internal peace in China, and a regular succession of sovereigns by 
hereditary right : such is by no means the case. Dr. Gntzlaff and 
Mr. Thornton have, at considerable length, and with much com- 
mendable zeal, translated and prepared several documents on this 
interesting subject; the following abstract will, however, suffi- 
ciently elucidate the various changes of rulers, although it is im- 
possible to narrate in detail the crimes, murders, wars, anarchy, 
and desolation which have overspread the land. 

No nation has had so many historians as China from the time of 
Confucius, who was bom b.c. 560. He was the first who col- 
lected the records (bundles of wood), and formed them into a 
history; every age since his time has had its historians, many of 
whom, however, are only transcribers. 

Dr. Bridgeman, a master of the language, speaking of the 
native historians, says, that a few are found among them whose 
writings are remarkable for their originality of thought and purity 
of diction, and that they have supplied rich and various materials 
for composing a history of one of the first nations that existed. 
He adds, that the author who would furnish a good history of 
China must make up his mind to study carefully more than one 
thousand volumes of native works. 

THE CHOW DYNASTY. 

B.C. 1001. Mvh-wang, the " magnificent king,'* is reported to 
have had an immoderate passion for horses, which Confucius says 
were scarce in China. His love of pomp and splendour was ex- 
hibited in constructing gorgeous palaces and temples. He de- 
clared war against the northern Tartars, who began to make 
incursions across the frontier. 

Modem Chinese history relates that this Emperor made a 
journey to Mount Kwan-lun, and other places beyond his empire ; 



iOO ANCIBNT CHINBSB ODB. 

B.C. 984. It is related by several historians^ and confirmed by the 
great chronological tables, that when this Emperor was at E^wan- 
km, , a western prince, or princess, named Se^wang-mao, 

('' Mother of the Western King,^') paid him a visit; that the two 
princes interchanged presents, and entertained each other with 
great magnificence. Their amnsements comprised poetical com- 
position; and two odes, said to have been written to each other, 
are extant. The western prince, or princess, sent artificers to 
China to construct palaces and gardens. Chinese authors are 
divided in opinion as to what country they came £rom; some say 
Persia, others Arabia (Ta-tsin) . 
The following is a literal version of these two odes : — 

SE-WAMG-MOO'S. 

" White clouds float in the sky ; 
The moimtain-top appears in view. 
Its distance far remote: 
Hills and rivers intervene. 
When we have a son, we die not : 
Marry, and then you may return. 



}f 



MUH-WANO'S. 



'' I return to the eastern land : 
I have reduced the nine tones to harmony. 
The ten thousand people are in prosperity. 
I regard you attentively : 
For three years have I continued here : 
Now I return to the deserted place.'' 

Although the visit is not noticed by Confticius^ it may neverthe- 
less have occurred, as it was foreign to his notions of propriety to 
hold intercourse with foreigners. Some have traced an analogy 
between this interview and the well-known visit of the Queen df 
Sheba to King Solomon. 

Another supposition is probable, that later authors may have 
copied a mutUated relation of that occurrence from the Bible or 
rabbinical writings. 

The Shoo-Eing gives an expression of opinion, which Muh- 
Wang is said to have related of himself — ^thus, " mj disposition in- 
clines towards what is wrong, but my resource is m my ministers, 
who are bound to supply my defects by their prudence and ex- 
perience ; they should check me when I swerve £rom the straight 
path, correct my perverseness, and expel from my mind what is 
bad.'' 

Muh-Wang is stated to have died B.C. 946, after a reign of fifty- 
five years. 

Although great doubts are naturally cast on the tradUimal his- 
tory of China, yet there is less mythology or fable in their tradi- 



s 



BATE OF ECLIPSBS IN CHINA. 301 

tions than in those of any other people except the Jews ; and the 
eclipses recorded by the Chinese (who viewed with great awe these 
natural celestial phenomena)^ attest the veracity of dates, at least 
for two thousand six hundred years from ths present day. 

There was an eclipse of the sun on the day sin-4naoUf i. e,, first 
of the tenth moon of the year Yih Chow, wluch corresponds with 
the 6th of September, b.c, 778, 

It is thus noticed in Chinese books : — 

'' During the conjunction of the tenth moon with the sun. 
The fiMt day of the Cycle called Sin-maou, 
There was something which devoured the sun ; 
It was a very bad omen. 
The moon we behold shone not ; 
The sun we now see was dark. 
And the poor people here below 
Were in a sad, a deplorable condition. 
The sun and moon (thus) announce great calamities. 
When they accomplish not their revolutions,'* &c. 

Among the lower classes of Chinese, the prevailing opinion 
with regard to an eclipse is, that au animal, a monster of the frog- 
kind, having one leg and two fore paws, swsdlows the sun or moon; 
in consequence of which the priests in the temples, the people in 
the streets, and the officers at the public courts, keep up an mces- 
aut beating of drums. As near the time of the commencement of 
the eclipse as can be ascertained, each one sounds his drum as 
loudly as he possibly can, in order to affright the frog, and cause 
it to cast forth the luminary which it has seized. The noise of the 
drums continues until the eclipse is over. Eclipses are generally 
regarded with dread by the Chinese, and they present offerings to 
the sun when he is thus obscured, believing some national calamity, 
to be portended. On the 7th day of 7th moon (7th of August), 
unmarried females offer wine, flowers, and cosmetics to two of the 
stars of the mUky way. 

The following record of eclipses is taken from the Chinese 
Chronology of Gaubil, and found to correspond with the 'calcula- 
tions of European astronomers : — 

B.C* B*C* o«Ca 

8 February*. 626 
28 April . . 612 
20 September 601 

9 May . . 575 
19 June . . 649 

The first eclipse of the moon on record in European books, was 
observed at Babylon. 



17 July. . . 709 
10 October . 695 
27 May ... 669 
10 November . 668 
19 August . . 655 



10 June . . 531 
9 April . . 518 
14 November 611 
22 July . . 495 
19 April . . 481 



* This eclipse is supposed by Volney to have been the same which was predicted 
by Thales. Herodotus states this eclipse put a stop to the conflict between the 
Lydians and Medes, under Cyaxares. 



9(tt THB CHOW DTNABTTj B.C. 940. 

To {tfoceed with a record of the Chow Dynaity : — 
B.C. 946 to 878. One of the successors of Mung-Wang, Heaoa* 
Wangj conferred on one of his grooms^ as a reward for lus skill in 
horsemanship^ the principality of 8hen-se, which^ at a subsego^st 
period^ overthrew the Chow Dynasty^ and founded that of Tsin^ 
better known as Tsin-Che Hwangte^ who built the Qreat Wall of 
China. 

B.C. 878. The next sovereign on record is Le^Wang, '^ Cruel 
and Tyrannical King/' his cruelty^ rapacity^ and depravity, ren- 
dered him odious to his subjects; some of whom lampooned his 
actions in prose and verse. To stop their censure, he forbade his 
subjects, on pain of death, to discuss his actions. To evade this 
tyranny, the writers veiled their satire in allegory, exhibiting the 
melancholy state of the empire, sunk in misery and discontent, 
overrun with robbers and extortioners, — ^thus, "there was a 
tender and flexible mulberry-tree, which once over-shadowed a vast 
space with its spreading branches. Its leaves are now dropping 
sear and withered to the ground, and those who rejoiced beneath 
its shade, spent with fatigue, can no longer find repose there.'' 

B.C. 873. Le-Wang tried sorcery to discover his dissatisfied 
subjects, and determined to put to death all whom the diviners 
named. Chaou-Kung, one of his ministers, warned him against 
adopting this method, as follows : — " so far from attempting to ex* 
tinguish the voice of the nation, you should give it free scope. It is 
madness to think of stopping a torrent ; on the contrary, we must 
deepen the channel, remove impediments, and open fresh sluices 
for the water. So that when the discontent of your people acquires 
a dangerous volume, you should give it vent. The true policy of 
government is to allow poets to sing, historians to write, ministers 
to give advice, and the people to utter their sentiments : a govern- 
ment derives its best instruction from the tongues of the people." 
Nothing better than this has been said in the middle of the nine- 
teenth century of the Christian era. 

B.C. 846. Le-Wang persevered in braving the brim full torrent 
of indignation of his people, and at last it broke out into open 
violence. His palace was attacked, but he escaped. The enraged 
mob demanded his child, and after a fruitless remonstrance of his 
chief minister, Chaou-Kung, with the rebels, he surrendered hia 
own child, as that of the heir, who was instantly killed. 

The Emperor ended his life after an exile of fourteen years ; a 
regency was appointed : the faithful minister exerted himself to 
quiet the people, and governed the country with zeal and ability. 

B.C. 827. On the death of Le-Wang, lus son was placed on the 
throne, and called Seuen-Wang, ^'Proclaimed King;" his reign 
was oiiJy seven years, but was stated to be a glorious one as re- 
garded internal peace. With the tributary tribes on the north and 
south of his empire he had many contests. 



INCUESIONS OF THE TABTA&S^ B.C. 7iBl. SOS 

B.C. 781. Yew^fFafifff the '^Betired King/' was indolent^ ex* 
trayagantj and fond of pleasure ; he augmented the taxes^ exhausted 
the resources of the empire on a damsel whom he had taken^ and 
dbcarded his own wife^ who obtained an asylum from the Prince 
of Shin^ who^ with the aid of the northern Tartars^ resented the 
injury done to his fiunily. 

The Tartars^ on this as on a subsequent occasion^ showed more 
energy than the Chinese. They took the Emperor prisoner^ killed 
him and his concubine^ ravaged the country^ and obtained great 
booty. 

The vassal princes became alarmed at the power of the Tartars^ 
roused their energies^ and it was only by threats that their auxiliaries 
were prevailed on to retire; the princes of Shin^ Chin^ Tsin^ and 
Wei^ having combined to expel them. 

B.C. 776. The lawful heir of Yew-Wan^ was proclaimed Em- 
peror^ under the title of Ping^Wang^ *' Pacific King;'' but the re- 
cords of this sovereign, and his successors in the dynasty, exhibit 
a great extent of anarchy^ crime^ rebellion^ and sensuality. 

The united vassals^ who placed Yew- Wang on the throne, and 
successfully drove out the dangerous Tartars^ obtained various 
favours for their services. 

. B.C. 747. The number of independent principalities iu the em- 
pire at this date was twenty-one. Some of the vassal princes, who 
were virtually independent, became dissatisfied, and renounced 
their allegiance. The King of Tse seized a great part of Shantung ; 
Tsoo took Hoo-Kwang and Kiang-se ; and Trin had quiet posses- 
sion of the large province of Shen-se^ now containing an area of 
154,000 square nules. 

It may here be noted that one of the chiefs who expelled the 
Tartars, was the Prince or King of Tsin. 

Claude Yisdelan, a learned Jesuit, states, ^^that the family of 
the kings of Tsin was iUustrious by its nobility and power. It ex- 
isted in great splendour more than 1000 years, and was only in- 
ferior to the royal dignity. Feitsz, a prince of this family, had 
conferred upon lum the sovereignty of the city Tain Chow in mesne 
tenure (en titre d' arriere fief), with the title of sub-tributary 
king. 

About 122 years after this (b.c. 770), Siangwan, petit roi of 
Tnn Chow, was created king in full tenure, without Umitalion. 
The same Emperor abandoning Singan-foo, the capital of his em- 
pire, for his seat in Lohyang (Honan), made himself master of the 
province of Shen-se. Though his fortune changed, he did not 
change his title, retaining that of the city of Tsin Chou. The 
kingdom of Tsin became celebrated, and being the place of the 
first arrival of the people of the western coimtries^ they gave this 
name to all China. 

B,c. 722, — ^was the forty-ninth year of Ping-Wang's sovereignty. 



804 THB 8H0O-KINO OF CONFUCIUS. 

and Tin-kungj the Frinoe of LoO| begui to reign. The histoiiy of 
Chinai called Shoo^king, said to be written by ConfuciiUi ia iv^ 
continued with this reign. 

Confdcias commenced a history, which is called Chnn-tsew, 
" Spring and Autumn/' This history is said to be very authentic, 
and comprehends historical details of the various states into 
which the empire was divided. 

The last chapter in the Shoo-king is devoted to an event which is 
said to have occurred in 624 b.c. Muh-kung, Prince of Tsin, in 
Shen-se, and the Prince of Tsin, in Shan-se, contended for power ; 
the latter was victorious. Muh-kung dying in a few years, upwards 
of 160 persons were compelled to kill themselves at the prince's 
funeral, in order to attend him in the other world. Tliis has 
always been a Tartar and Scythian custom. 

B.C. 719 to 618. The six successors of Ping-wang, who occupy 
this epoch, had very disturbed reigns. The dissensions of the 
several princes with each other gave rise to perpetual wars ; and 
the constant inroads of the Tartars caused the reigning Emperor, 
Hwan-wang, to die of grief and mortification. 

B.C. 650. Hwang^hmg^ the Prince of Tse, became the most 
powerful of all the princes, and was, by mutual consent, chosen 
chief of their assemblies. Public affairs were well administered ; 
arts, sciences, and commerce flourished, and men of talent were 
encouj*ged at \m splendid court. 

B.C. 675. Hwuy-wang was no sooner placed on the throne, 
than a faction was formed against him, and his capital taken from 
him. The tributary princes came to his aid ; the capital was re- 
taken, after dreadful slaughter. 

B.C. 645. This Emperor intended that his youngest son should 
succeed him, but the princes in an assembly settled that his eldest 
son should reign. Seang-wang was declared emperor, but his 
brother, Shoo-tae, intrigued against him, and successfully drove 
him from the court by the aid of the Tartars. After some time, 
peace was proclaimed, and Shoo-tae retired to a distant place. 

In 637, the reigning Emperor found it necessary to call in the 
Tartars, to defend his capital against his vassals. He subsequently 
married a Tartar princess, who proved faithless, and too intimate 
with ¥s brother. 

Shoo-tae again incited the Tartars to revenge the insult (their 
ruling passion) ; they drove Seang-wang from the throne, and 
proclaimed Shoo-tae Emperor, who made the degraded Empress 
his wife. 

The most powerful of the vassal princes, Trin^ drove the Tartars 
to their own territory, took Shoo-tae prisoner, put him to death, 
and placed his brother again on the throne, who reigned until 617. 

B.C. 618 to 606. Two Emperors reign^ in this period, Kingr 
wang and Kwang^toang, who were well disposed towards their sub- 



BIRTH OF CONFXrCIUS. B.C. 551/ 20 

jects, but were thwarted in every measure by uncontrollable vassalsj 
8o that their authority was only nominal. 

B.C. 606. Ting-wang was chosen Emperor; eleven of the vassal 
princes combined with the Prince of Chao as their chiefs to 
endeavour to produce some tranquillity, the empire being torn and 
distracted by the clashing of their separate interests. The history 
of China is, in fact, nothing but a continued narrative of intrigues 
and wars of the several principalities, most of which kept large 
standing armies, who were employed killing each other, whilst the 
common enemy (Tartars) plundered the poor people. It would be 
only a waste of space to further narrate the latter years of the 
Chow dynasty, as it would not be a history of a monarchy, but a 
harrowing detail of crimes that far surpass anything on record. 

In the midst of these scenes (b.c. 551), Confucius was bom ; and 
hisjioctrines, which partake largely of inspiration and abound in 
virtuous precepts, were well calculated to mould a tractable people, 
and to ensure, so far as anythins: short of Christianity can secure, 
the peace and Iiappiness of a natioB. In this rei^ was bom 
Laou-tsze, the founder of the Taou sect, that is, the '' sect of rea- 
son.'' 

B.C. 606. The remarks of M. Bemusat on the mythological his- 
tory of this prince of imposters, are to the following effect : he 
says, ^'the biography of Laou-tsze is a tissue of absurdities, not 
even of his own age, which have no connexion with the doctrine 
in his book ; his followers, subsequent to the introduction of 
Budhism into China, probably adopted the idea of incarnation 
£rom India, and the pretended reappearances of the philosopher at 
various periods, only mark the rise and declension of his principles; 
which were sometimes openly professed, and at other times perse- 
cuted." 

The learned professor saw striking analogies between Laou-tsze 
and Pythagoras (b.c 540). 

An interview is said to have taken place between Laou-tsze and 
Confucius in the year 517 b.c The former was 87 years old, and 
the latter 35 ; Laou-tsze reproached Confiicius with vanity and 
worldly-mindedness, as exhibited by the pompous style in which 
he travelled, and the number of his followers. ^'The wise man 
loves obscurity; so far from courting employments, he shuns 
them : he studies the times ; if they be favourable, he speaks ; if 
corrupt, he yields to the storm. He who is truly virtuous, makes 
no parade of his virtue ; he does not proclaim to all the world that 
he is a sage. This is all I have to say to you : make the best of it 
you can.'' Confocius said of Laou-tsze that '^ he knew the habits 
of birds, beasts, and fishes, and how to take them ; but as to the 
dragon, he could not understand how it could raise itself in the 
heavens. He had seen Laou-tsze, who resembled the dragon."* 

* The Cbineie cooBidet the dragon as a type of the celestial genii. 



206 N01fSKOU8 WAR8 AND INTRIOUEB. 

622 B.C. Acoording to the natiye history ^' Chnn-tsew'' (said to 
he written by Confucius^) there is nothing recorded at this period, 
but wars and intrigues of the numerous petty states into which the 
empire was divided. The principal fiefs, at this time, were fifteen; 
the chief were called Tsin, Shuh, Pa, Wei, Kin, Yen, Kwo, Tsoo, 
Wei, (the second,) Sung, Tse, Loo, Woo, and Yue. 

Some of these petty principalities extended beyond the Yang-* 
tzekang, but none of them reached the '^ Sea of the South.'' 

B.C. 519. On the death of King Wang, he left the throne to 
his youngest son Chaou ; but his title was disputed by the eldest, 
Mong, and each sought aid from their vassals ; the eldest was put 
out of the way privately, after much loss of blood by the partisans 
of each. 

Hong's party proclaimed (Kae) his full brother, and was well 
supported by the Prince of Tsin. After various contests, Kae was 
victorious, and was crowned under the title of King Wang, and 
soon caused Chaou's death. 

B.C. 472. The Prince of Yue despoiled the Prince of Woo, of 
his large territories, by which means he demanded the chieftainship 
of all the vassals, and even subjected the hitherto powerful Prince 
of Tsin to submission. 

B.C. 440. The Emperor Ching^ing" Wang left three sons ; the 
eldest was killed by the yoimgest brother, who was very soon after 
murdered by another brother ; the third brother became Emperor 
Kaou^Wang. 

B.C. 375. At this period the vassal princes became so formidable 
that the authority of the Emperor ' Lee- Wang' was disregarded. 
The Ching territory was conquered by the Prince of Han. 

B.C. 366. During the reign of '^ Heen-Wang" the great Prince 
of Tsin became the terror of all the other vassals, whose territories 
adjoined his : the Princes of Wei and Tsoo, therefore fortified their 
provinces by great waUs. 

B.C. 342. The Prince of Tsin was declared chief of the vassals, 
and attended court at the head of a large army to pay homage. 

B.C. 332. Tsao attacked Yue and deprived him of his posses* 
sions, and he returned to the '^ Isles of the Eastern Sea." The 
entire province of Che-Keang was subjected by the Prince of 
Tsoo, who now assumed the title Wang ' King.' His example was 
followed by Han, Tse, Tsin, and a few others. The Emperor 
Heen-Wang is said to have thrown the symbols of his authority into 
a lake, lest some of his vassals should obtain possession of them. 

B.C. 317. Nearly all the other vassals conspired against Tsin, 
but he was more than a match for them. He obtained victories 
over Chaou, Han, Wei, Yen, and Tsoo. He also subjected Sze-> 
Chuen province, and a portion of Hoo-Kwang, from two chiefs, who 
w«re called ' Kings of Shoo.' 

B.C. 306. ' Nan- Wang.' During this reign high-waU-building, 
to keep out the Tartars, increased; the Prince erf Chaou, (on the 



GREAT WALL BUILTj B.C. 806. 207 

iKnrthem firontier) built the great wall between the Hwang-ho and 
proyince of Chih-le^ and with the aid of a well-disciplined anny^ he 
was the terror of these invaders. Yen also drove them out of the 
ncMrth of Chih-le^ and built a great wall from Shan-se to Leaou-tung. 

Tsin expelled them from the north of Shen-se^ and a great wall 
was constructed from Lin taou foo to the Hwang-ho^ where this 
river enters China. 

B.C. 286. The Sung territory was invaded by the King of Tse. 
The King of Yen leagued with others against Tse ; but his death 
caused the breaking-up of the confederacy. 

B.C. 286. The King of Tsin, '^ Chaau-Seang^' was every day 
adding to his vast possessions. His grandson, E-jin, was left as 
hostage at the court of Chaou, and the King of Tsin laid siege to 
a town belonging to that prince. The Prince of Chaou determined 
to kill the hostage : but he was foiled, by the aid of Leu-puh-Wei, 
a merchant of Ho-nan, who concealed the hostage E-jin, in his 
own house. Leu-puh-Wei had a concubine, with whom E-jin 
became too familiar, and her former master gave her up. 

B.C. 256. In process of time she was delivered of a son, who 
subsequently became the great Emperor Che-hwangte. The mo- 
ther was declared the lawftd wife of Prince E-jin, who was the heir 
of the Tsin family. 

B.C. 256. A simultaneous attack by order of the nominal Em-. 
peror 'Nan- Wang' was made against the Prince of Tsin, but the 
only vassal that responded to the call was Tse. This was sufficient 
indication for ' Chaou-seang' Tsin, who sent an army into the 
imperial territories, and took thirty-five cities and towns. 

The Emperor surrendered, and craved his life, but he died 
soon after, and left no issue to contend with the usurper. 

251. The usurper died and was succeeded by his son Heaou^ 
Wan, who died in a few days after. Thus terminated the Chow 
dynasty. 

E-jin was proclaimed Emperor " Chwanff-seang-Wang ;" and 
his deliverer Leu-puh-wei, was made a prince and prime minister. 

B.C. 256. The fourth dynasty was called Tsin, from which the 
term Chin or China was probably derived. The first Emperor of 
tiiis dynasty obtained dominion over the various kingdoms of 
which China was formerly composed. It is very probable that at 
this time Tunking, Cochin China, and several other neighbouring 
countries, were subdued and annexed to China* This supposition 
respecting the origin of the term China is the more probable, from 
the circumstance that the] country was called throughout all ages 
Chanff'KtoOy i.e. ' the middle kingdom,' and likewise it had hitherto 
taken the name from the reigning dynasty, such as Han, Tang, &c. ; 
but the victorious arms of this Emperor, having carried with them 
his name, the surrounding countries have thus perpetuated and 
handed it down to posterity. In the Latin tongue China is written 
Sinae-, in the time of Marco Polo (a.d. 1260) the Chinese were 



208 TSIN DYNABTTj B.C. 24A. 

called Ckmox On by the Japanase; and tiiey are so oaUed by tbe 
Siamese and the Cochin Chinese. In the Institutes of Menu 
they are called CMna$; Ptolemy A.n. 160| calls them Sin4t€»*, 



THE TSIN DYNASTY. 

B.C. 248. Chuoang^eang^WoMg, i.e. E*jin was imbued with the 
ambition which long had characterised the Tsin family. He 
attacked the Princes of Wei^ Han and Chaou. To check his sue^ 
cesses^ fiye princes joined thdr forces to those of Weij and defeated 
the imperial army of 200^000 men. The Emperor died, it is said^ 
of grief^ leaving tne throne to his son (though only 13 years (dd) b^ 
the concubine previously mentioned. 

B.C. 246. T8in'Chekwang4e, i.e. ChingpWang decHned the titl« 
of Emperor^ chose that of King of Tsin, and made his old friend the 
Honan merchant. Prime Minister. The fonner intimacy between. 
Leu-puh-Wei, and the empress-mother was now renewed; and th^ 
better to disguise his criminal intercourse, Leu-puh-wei intro* 
duced a young man into the court under the pretenee that he was 
a eunuch. 

The empress-mother fell in love with this youth, by whom she 
had two children. The grandees investigated the matter; the. 
youth fled, and carried off the imperial seal, and with it levied a 
Wge army. Being devoid of talent for such an enterprise, he^ 
was soon defeated, and, notwithstanding the interference of his 
friend the prime minister, he was cut in pieces, with his two; 
children. Leu-puh-wei was deprived of office, and sent to a distant 
part of the empire, where he soon died, llie Emperor punished 
his guilty mother with such severity, that the literati remonstrated 
with him on his unfilial conduct; but, in consequence of their, 
temerity, upwards of twenty of the literary nobility were executed. 
Notwithstanding this, a noble of the house of Tse, reproached the 
Emperor, and so worked on his feelings, as to succeed in cansiiig 
the empress to be released from a cruel punishment, and himself 
to be raised to a distinguished office. 

The Emperor at last met with a man of great ability, named 
Le-sz^, to whom he confided his long-cherished intention of can« 
soUdating the numerous kingdoms into one empire. 

B.C. 228. A commencement was made with the states of Chaou 
and Yen: Le-sze, by his intrigues, having set them at variance i 
the troops of Yen were defeated by those of Chaou, who took, the 
Yen territory. The Emperor's aid was sought, and readily 
granted ; his army was successful, he re-took the conquered terri* 
tory, and kept it. In the mean time, the intriguer had set the 
two states of Wei and Choo at war respecting their boundaries. 
An appeal was made to the Emperor to decide the matter, which 
he did by seizing those of the former and annexing them to his . 



PLAN 07 CONSOLIDATING THE EMPIRE. 309 

own. He now attacked Chou^ who was well supported by the 
nobles^ and met with a defeat ; but corruption and discord accom- 
plished his purpose ; Chou was taken and executed, together with 
all his family. 

B.C. 224. The King of Han, seeing the fate that awaited him, 
proposed to become tributary, but that was not the policy of the 
Emperor. The King of Han was brought to court, his territory 
taken, and, being a man of no energy, was permitted to die a 
natural death. The Wei state was the best fortified of all the 
others ; the capital, in particular, was well defended : to ensure 
success, the river Hwang-ho was made to flow into the city, which 
had the desired eflPect. When the city was taken, the country 
soon surrendered, and every branch of the family was miu'dered. 

The Prince of Choo was next on the list, but the imperial troops 
were here defeated with great loss. The second army sent against 
Choo is said to have amounted to 600,000 men. The difficulty 
of feeding such an army caused frequent conflicts with the escort- 
ing convoys. After many skirmishes, a general engagement took 
place, in which the imperial troops were successful. 

B.C. 220. The kingdom of Tse had yet to be conquered, and 
some other petty states ; thus, in a few years, China was consoli- 
dated into a large empire. A native authority says, '' the Tsins 
acquired the mastery, not by their virtues or the force of good 
government, but by craft, treachery, corruption, and wholesale 
murder.'^ All this was done in about twenty-six years. 

A proposal was made to the Emperor to erect petty principalities 
for the grandees and the royal princes, which he refused by saying 
"good government is irreconcileable ivith a multitude of masters ^' 
His capital was SEen-se ; everything curious and valuable that be- 
longed to the vanquished states was conveyed thither, and all the 
implements of war were converted into musical instruments, bells, 
and statues of the several genii. 

The Emperor now turned his attention to a survey of the em- 
pire, and saw the necessity of making roads for intercommunica- 
tion, from his travelling through a great portion of the country. 

B.C. 215. A prophecy was spread that the dynasty of Tsin 
must give way to that of Hoo. This title was supposed to refer 
to the Tartars, and the Emperor prepared to subdue them. There 
was a large country to the north of Shan-se, Shen-se, and Chih-le, 
called Ta-tan. The inhabitants were known by the names of 
Huns, Turks, Mongols, and Tartars. The Chinese have no true 
history of these tribes until b.c. 209. Their country is described 
by early historians as bounded on the east by the Wo-leang-ho 
(Mantchoo Tartary ) ; on the south, by the Wall of China ; in Tar- 
tary it had the countries of Hami and Igaur, as far as the Irtish ; 
on the north, its boundaries were the Kalkas and Eleuth empires. 

These united tribes were called Heung-noos, and hence the 
name of Huns, which signifies in Chinese, "unhappy slaves." 



210 OmOlN OY THE aUNS, AND OKBAT-'WA&L. 

When China was parcelled out into states^ the HevBg^noos were 
yery formidable^ and often successM in their ineurBions. 

Gibbon says, '' the plains of Scythia^ i.e. Tartaryi in ereiy age 
have been inhabited by vagrant tribes of hunters and shepherds^ 
whose indolence was such as to never cultivate the earthy and 
whose restless spirit disdained the confinement of a sedentairy life. 
In every age, the Scythians and Tartars have been renowned &r 
their invincible courage and rapid conquests. The thrones of 
Asia have been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds dT the 
north.'^ He places their country between the mouth of the 
Danube and the sea of Japan ; 5^000 miles of longitude^ and in 
latitude from the Wall of China to Siberia. 

After the Heung-noos subjugated the Tartars to the west of 
Shen^se, the latter emigrated to the westward, and founded a large 
kingdom, called Yue (which is supposed to be Barthia), north of 
the laxartes, extending to the Caspian 8ea, also Khorasan and 
Backtriana, which an ancient Chinese writer states is contiguous 
to Keen-too (Hindu), i.e. India; whither, he says, many mer- 
chants in his time (b.c. 100) convey goods £rom the province of 
Sae-chuen. 

Che-hwang-te, determined to exterminate the whole race, sent 
a large army against the Heung-noos, and routed and slaughtered 
many thousands of them. To effectually keep them out> <^t 
extraordinary monument, the Great Wa]l, was constructed* Bar- 
row, to give an idea of its extent, says, '^ the vastness of the mass 
may be better appreciated by considering that it is more than 
sufficient to surround the circumference of the earth, on two of 
its great circles, with two walls each six feet high and two feet 
thick.'' 

The previous history of this Emperor and his minister, stron^y 
fiivours the incident narrated in Chinese history, that he ordered 
four hundred learned men to be buried alive, and books and annals 
to be burned, in order to blot out the knowledge of the past, and 
render his own dynasty the most celebrated. This barberoos in- 
cident is thus recorded. 

B.C. 213. At an assembly of the grandees convened by the 
Emperor, who was seated on his throne, he invited every one pie- 
sent to give a free expression of their sentiments on his govern- 
ment and policy^ without any restraint or reserve; at the same 
time assuring them of his protection, no matter whether it inet 
their approval or no. The first speaker was most eloquent in his 
adulation; the second, a literary noble, was condemnatory, but 
was called to order by the Emperor, who preferred hearing the 
opinion of his prime minister, Le-sze, who ctirected his doqumce 
against the literati, ridiculed their notions of antiquity, styJied 
them fools and rebels who ought to be deprived of that which only 
mtnistered to their pride or their discont^OEt. He proposed that 



DESTRUCTION Of LITBBATI AND 300KS. .211 

^ail' books, except tliose on medicine, agrictdture, diiiniation, and 
astrology, and, also, that the annals of the reigning family, be 
destroyed within forty days. This presumption was overruled by 
an all-wise Providence, by the subsequent discovery of some books 
of Confucius, in repairing an old house; and the attempt to per- 
petuate his race failed, by the demise of his son in less than two 
years after his own death, through which circumstance the govern- 
ment passed into other hands, and the dynasty was changed for 
that of Han, by which name the Chinese wish to distinguish them- 
selves from the Tartars. 

It is not improbable that China would have been Christianieed, 
but for the despotism that ruled the empire. The malcontents 
were becoming so numerous that an example was made in the 
capital, by causing upwards of 400 of the most distinguished of 
the Confucian school (who were prepared for Christianity) to be 
put to a cruel death. The Emperor did not even spare las eldest 
son, Foo^seo, who, for daring to remonstrate with hun against this 
cruel act, was banished. To blot out effectually all remembrance 
of the past, new characters were brought into use by Le^sze, which 
were declared the only legal form. It is probable that these new 
characters were an improvement on the former rude pictures or 
symbols, and it is not unlikely were similar to the Egyptian hiero- 
glyphics. Some have said that the present Chinese ehaiBcteos are 
-all resolvable into the Arabic numerals, viz. : three single stndLes; 
two strokes united ; two across, &c. This would suggest an early 
intercourse between the Chinese and the Arabians, or deseendants 
of Ishmael. 

B.C. 211. It should be recollected that the biographers of t^is 
prince were more or less prejudiced against his rule. If he were 
not one of the most wicked, he was one of the greatest their coun- 
try ever produced. His ambition was probably prompted by a re- 
gard for the wetfare of his subjects. He rescued China from a 
wretched state of anardiy, and much enlarged its extent. Inde- 
pendent of the Great Wall, he constructed a road upwards of 600 
miles long, in which hills were divided, valleys filled up, marshes 
drained, and trees planted on each side of this road throughout its 
whole extent. Upwards of 800,000 persons were employed to 
complete his gorgeous palaces, and beautify his capital at Heen- 
yong. His character, in several respects, was like that of Na- 
poleon; he never disclosed what he intended to do, or where he 
should reside, and generally kept moving about — ^to dissipate, it 
was said, his gloomy reflections. 

In one of his journeys in Shan-tung he was taken iU, saw his 
appafoaching end, sent for his discarded son, Foo«Soo ; but before 
l&e cower d^arted he died, in the thirty-seventh year of his 
neim, and Mieth of his age. b.c. 210. 

T^ fiune of Che^Hunrnffie extended throughout Asia ; the <gy«i- 

p8 



212 FBEB POLICY OF CHV-HW4NG-TE. 

dear of China was every where renowned ; for he literally per- 
mitted freedom of intercourse, and during his reign there was aii 
extensive traffic with India, the Eastern Islands^ &;c. . . . 

His. death was concealed from his son, and a conspiracy was. 
entered into between Chaou-kaou, an eunuch^ who held the seal of 
the empire, and was the criminal judge. His object was to secure 
the throne to the second son, Hoo-hae, 

The grandees were introduced to the bed-room of the Emperor 
as if he was alive, and an edict was produced, appointing Hoo-hae 
as his successor. The other two sons of the Emperor were soon 
put out of the way, and Hoo-hae was proclaimed, Ut'^he-hwaTiff^e. 

B.C. 210 to 202. Xhe new Emperor was crud and debauched^ 
and left all his affairs to the management of the eunuchs and Le-* 
sze, who influenced the Emperor to kill the most illustrious nobles 
in the empire. 

Some of the nobles revolted, and the eunuchs despatched au 
army against them. The person sent to head the army, was pre* 
vailed on by his officers to rebel against his sovereign^ and was 
ultimately declared King of Choo. The nobles followed the ex-- 
ample, and all the old titles were restored, such as Choou, Wei, 
Yen, and Tse. Lew-pang, the chief of a town called Pey, was 
hailed as the Prince of Pey, and became an officer under Heon^ 
Leang, general of the King of Choo. 

B.C. 208. The ruling eunuch, hearing that his companion Le<» 
sze intended to join the grandees, in laying before the Emperor 
the true state of affairs, represented to his Mtgesty that Le-^ze 
was in concert with the rebels, and had been promised a kingdqm 
for himself. He was tried by a jury composed of eunuchs, con- 
demned, and cut in pieces, with many others. 

The eunuch Chaou-kaou was made prime minister, and seeing 
the state of the empire, he determined to depose his sovereign* 
To do this, he procured a number of troops to surround the palace 
at night, and represented them as the rebel army, knowing that 
the Emperor would destroy himself rather than fall into the hands 
of the enemy ; this stratagem succeeded as he expected it« 

The eunuch raised Tze-ying, a son of Foo-soo, to the throne. 
This prince was well aware of the dreadful character he had to 
deal with, and a few days after he was crowned, feigned illness. 
The eunuch attending him alone, the Emperor stabbed him; a cir- 
cumstance which excited universal joy. 

Two generals now aspired to the imperial throne, Heang-tse and 
Lew-pang ; the latter reached the capital first, and the Emperor, 
haying no means of resisting, surrendered his crown and seal of 
authority. On the arrival of the other general, his disappointmeu^t 
knew no bounds, he murdered all before him, and burned the 
great city, (Heen-yaii), which the late Emperor was thirty yeais 
pjeautifying« He then retured to the eastward. 

B.C. 204. The King of Chop ^bs proclaimed Emperor by the 



HAN DYNASTY, B.C. 202. 2lS 

General Heang-tse, under the title of M-te, taking a title for him- 
self, which he called Pa-wang. The etnpire was now divided into 
several kingdoms : Lew-pang was King of Han. Heang-tse be- 
(Atme bdions to every one, several battles took place, but ultimately 
HiB«mg-tse was defeated, and become his own executioner at the 
close of the year b.c. 203, Thus terminated the Tsin Dynasty. 



THE HAN DYNASTY, from b.c. 202 to a.d. 255. 

LeW'pang, the captain of a band of robbers, with the aid of the 
Prince of Tsoo, declared himself Emperor, under the name Kaou- 
tsoo. He was the grandsire of many Emperors, and possessed a 
daring and jealous disposition. His policy was to conciliate the 
Chinese, and, for this end, he patronized the Confucians, and re- 
stored the scattered sages. He murdered every living branch of 
the last dynasty, (the last scion was Tsze-ying), and caused their 
bones to be disinterred and burnt. His death took place b.c. 195, 
leaving for his successor a child of tender years. 

His mother became regent, and aided by experienced ministers, 
ruled with a firm hand ; her son dying before he reached the throne, 
she kept possession. Her ambition and cruelty knew no bounds ; 
and had not a fit of sickness carried her off, she must have met 
with an untimely death. She was the first female who ever ruled 
the Chinese. 

B.C. 180. fVan-te, a descendant of Lew-pang, was chosen suc- 
cessor, lived in peace, tedressed many grievances, and was the first 
who gave a distinctive name to his reign, which has been ever since 
followed up. Wan-te died 157 b,c., leaving a good character be- 
hind him, which had been a novelty in China for many centuries. 
Under his reign the Chinese invented paper. 

B.C. 157. His successor, King-tey murdered a young prince, 
whose father fomented a rebellion to revenge his son's death, but 
was defeated by the imperial forces. Between earthquakes and 
locusts, this was a most calamitous reign for the people. King-te 
died B.C. 141. 

b;c, 141. WoO'ie, the next Emperor, was early called to con- 
tend against the old enemies, the Huns or Tartars ; intrigues, tri- 
butes, and alliances, all failed'; arms were then tried, and a tem- 
porary victory was gained over them. In this reign commenced 
a violent struggle for supremacy between the founder of Taouism 
(Laou-tsze), and the disciples of Confucius. This Emperor's cha- 
racter was both cruel and superstitious. He reigned fifty-four 
years* 

B.C. 86. Chaou-tCy the son of the last Emperor, ascended the 
throne at seven years of age, but died b.c. 74; the same scenes of 
bloodshed were witnessed in this short reign between the east and 
west Tartiura^ #ho attacked the frontier provinces. 



U4 CRINEM AND BOMAN EMPIEE6 MEET* 

B.C. 74. Chaau^t^M uncle suooeeded him^ bat waa dettuonedby 
the nobles. 

B.C. 73. Suen-te was the greatest patron of literature that 
China had seen for many years. He subjected the Huns, and 
ruled without interruption to the Caspian^ by the aid of an able 
prime minister^ Ho*kwong. A plot was set on foot by his own 
daughter to murder him and all his ministers, which was timely 
discovered. 

About this period the Roman and Chinese Empires gradually 
approached each other, and they appear to have coalesced during 
the Han Dynasty for the subjugation of the Parthians, who were 
attacked by the ftomans on the west, while the Chinese despatched 
a general from the east to the Caspian, which he refused to c^oss, 
hearing the passage would occupy from five to twelve months. He 
was punished for his cowardice. 

B.C. 48. Yueri'te reigned sixteen years, during which time he 
devoted his time to promoting ancient literature. Famine, and 
a fresh war with the Tartars, rendered all his efforts to improve 
the condition of the people futile. 

B.C. 82. Ching'4e, son of the last Emperor, was called to the 
throne j but bent on devoting himself solely to libertinism and dis- 
sipation, he ^itrusted all power to his maternal uncles. He died 
suddenly, and was succeeded by his nephew. 

Notwithstanding his own dissipation, he thus remonstrates with 
his subjects, ^'We see nothing now but extravagance; my officers 
build great mansions, make extensive gardens and vast lakes, and 
entertain in idleness a crowd of slaves : in their chariots, dresses, 
marriages, funerals, and in everything, their ^ipenditure is ex- 
cessive.^' 

B.C. 8. Gae-te, a man of good understanding, was unable to 
carry out his good intentions, through a faction that surrounded 
his court. He died the year Our Saviour was bom. 

Qi^*te mourned over the disorders arising from extravagance 
in feasts, dress, vain ornaments, and from '^ the passion for tibe 
tender and effeminate music of the kingdom of Chin and We^'' 
which he states has inspired libertinism. He consequently banished 
music ftom the palace except that which was required for religioui 
ceremonies, and for the instruments used in war. 

A .B . Ping4e, (styled the " Prince of Peace," which was a remark* 
able tide to have been given at the commencement of the Chris- 
tian Era), the grandson of Yuen*te, was the lawful heir to the 
throne, although only nine years of age. The regency was usurped 
by an ambitious noble, Wang-mank, whose object was to ascend 
the throne, and so change the dynasty. After a dreadful struggle 
he was killed. 

A.n. 25. Ktoang-woO'te was forced by his soldiers to take the 
throne, and his first act was to declare a general amnesty. He 
collected about him a most vigorous government » restored order 



TEBUIXATION OF THS UAV DYNA8TT.. 315 

atid Immbled the Hmis. He prosecuted a long war with Coohin- 
China, and never ceased nntil he penetrated to Cambodia^ He 
died after a saccessfol reign of thirty-two years. 

A.n« 58. Minff'ie, a son of the last Emperor, sent an embassy 
to Hindostan, to import a foreign religion, in the form of Budhism^ 
which soon spread all over the empire. The Emperor was a patron 
of learning, but his efforts to benefit the empire were greatly frus- 
trated by continual wars with the Tartars, who spread devastation 
along the western frontiers. He reigned 18 years. 

A.D; 73. Chang^te* This reign is celebrated for a great victoiy 
over the Tartars, who were driven into the interior of their country 
^)00 le. (Chinese miles.) In this reign lived a celebrated authoress^ 
Pankoo; her chief merit was in assigning to her own spedes, the 
most inferior duties. To this strange doctrine must be attributed 
the degradation of the female sex to the present day« After 
Changt-te's death, boys, girls, and women reigned^ and the greatest 
distress and confusion prevailed^ 

A.n. 220. Three claimants now aspired to the throne, Tsa09hpe, 
Ckaou-le, and the Prince of Woo^ who had hitherto ruled over a 
great portion of southern China. The confused state of the em- 
I»re may be imagined ; natural calamkies were numerousj and no 
one in authority cared ior the distresses of the peofde. Hou^te, 
the lawful Emperor, in a fit of despair, abdicated tiiie throne in 
&vor of the Prince of Wei, and against the wish of his son, who 
kiQed himself and his whcde family, a.d. 263. With this tr^edy, 
tiie Han Dynasty ceased. 

The Chinese still pride themselves on their being the " Sons qf 
Hrniy' whose dynasty they consider the most glorious. Great 
efforts were made for the encouragement of literature, and the 
officers of govemmesit ware chosen from among the literati. 

The Tartars were bribed to quietude by giving their chiefs the 
daughters of the Han rulers in marriage. Ihiring the continu- 
ance of the Han dynasty, the several Emperors had conquered 
many remote regions, with the view of bringing them under the 
transforming influence of their empire. Yet it was not until the 
reign of Woo-te, (a.d. 265) that the south of China became subject 
to or incorporated with the empire. A practice was then adopted 
which is continued to this day, viz« : — ^purchasing the l<^alty of 
their saui-barbarous subjects. In a memorial from a minister to 
the Smperor Wan-te,* he says — ^' behold a monstrous fact ; 
although the Emperor is the head of the empire, and the barba- 
rians on the frontiers, but the inferior extremities, or feet, yet the 
Tartars in our day offer us parpetual insult, and to eviade them 
krge mms in silv^ or goods JL paid them ev^ year. To demand 
this kind of tribute is to assume the character of ma£^;e[rs; to pay 
it is to Teduoe ourselves to the condition of subjects— *the feet 
at topy the head at bottom — What a shameful derangement 1^' 

• Slate pap^tra collected by Kang-be, a copy of which is in the RoyaT Library of Frfi bV 



210 CIVILISATION BUUKO HAKT DYNASTY, 

W« have an evidence of the state of civilisation during the Hitn 
Dynasty as contrasted with a previous period, in a manorial from, a 
minister under Woo-te, which describes the hypocrisy^ dissimulaticwi^ 
knavery, and intemperance of this period. The Hans were the 
first who imposed a tax on the sale of wines. He contrasts the 
period with that of Wan-te, (b.c. 179) '^ whose nethor garment 
was of leather, a common strap served to hold his sword ; his seat 
was a common mat; his house had no rich or handsome furniture; 
his only ornaments were his wisdom and his virtue/' '^ Now'' (said 
the memorialist) '^ your palace is a city ; your women are covered 
with diamonds and jewels ; your horses are richly harnessed; y^Dwr 
dogs have rich collars, and even to the vessels of wood andckiy, all 
are covered with ornaments : you have oast balls oi great sise, your 
drums emulate thunder, to say nothing of your dramas, concerts, 
and dances." There must also then have been great wealth in the 
empire, for under the reign of Hwany4e (a.u. 190,) a prime nunis- 
ter named Tung-cho directed all public affairs; was master over 
the princes, and even over the Emperor himself. He compelled all 
who approached him to bend the knee under pain of deatb, the 
slightest murmur to his will was visited with the penalty of deoa|»* 
tation, under his own eye. At last the Emperor summoned coura^ 
to sign the death-warrant of Tung-cho, and he was privately des- 
patched* The annals state there were great rejoicings at his foil*. 
There are said to have been found in his coffers more than 
30,000 lbs. weight of gold, 90,000 lbs. weight of silver and pearls> 
and jewels beyond count. 

The Han Pyuasty is so celebrated in Chinese history, that to 
this day '^ a son of Han'' is identified with everything that is 
great and glorious and he must be still a hero. 

That distinguished scholar, Bemusat, says that the Chinese at 
this period (see Embassies) began to have political relations and a 
regular communication with the countries of the we^. It was 
under Woo4e that the Chinese Ambassador, Chang-keen^ on reach- 
ing Ta-wan and Ta-liae, found that the inhabitants had pre- 
viously heard of the power and wealth of China, and to culti- 
vate a better acquaintance they facilitated the envoy's progress 
to Sogdiana. The countries that he entered into friendly relation 
with were Taiwan (Shash) ; Ta-yue^che (Transaxiana) ; Kang^keu 
(Sogdiana) Ta-hea (Bactriana.) The Ambassador brought detailed 
accounts of six other kingdoms that he had heard of on his route, 
amongst which is a country he called Shin-too (Hindus). He 
also reported that the people of Sze-Cbuen province had intercourse 
and traded with Bactriana across the Tibetian mountains. 

Between the periods, b.c 86 to 4/i, the government of China 
took a most active part in the disputes of the Princes of Tartary. 
Tb^ protected their vassal the King of Shen««hen, whose tem- 
t&fy, was situs^ to the W. of Lake Lop; to the S. of Tartary, 
their jurisdiction extended to Khoten and Yarkand. 



J 



ETENT8 DURING THE HAN DYNASTY. 



217 



'%x.S9. The dnnese govenunent had political agents styled 
Gomtnalnders^ in Pe-seu^ Kean-sbe and Soo-che^ and a Chinese go- 
T^mor^general controlled Sogdiana and several other comitries to 
the "west, although not united to China. 

B.C. 6. Western Tartaiy was divided into fifty-five states^ 
the Mspective princes of which were vassals of the empire. 

A.n. 75. The Chinese conquests extended to the E. and S. as 
well as the W. having subjected Corea^ Cochin-China^ and the 
island of Hai-nan. After the conquest of Corea by the Emperor 
Woo-te^ intercourse between China and Japan is said to have com- 
menced. The Chinese historian ^ Jfa-/«Hi9^/in' thus writes^ ''the 
territcNrial expansion exhausted the resources of the nation^ for 
the sake of aggrandieement which yielded no advantage.^' 
< A. p. 107. All the states of Tartary revolted. 

A.D. 166 to 240, According to Colonel Bumey^ the conquests of 
China were cajrried to the banks of the Irrawaddi. Ta-guang, at 
that time the seat of the fiurmah Empire^ is said to have been 
destroyed by the Tartars and Chinese. In the Bamhu Pwrana, a 
p»*son called Manja Ghok is said to have led a colony into Nepal 
from China. The maximum population under the Chows is given at 
lS,704f^920 meny excluding females and children; the custom was to 
note those only at 15 and 60 years of age^ there being at that 
period no capitation tax. The told population is put down at nearly 
2&^000/)00 j '' the empire'' comprehended little more than one half 
of China as now laid down. The south of China was inhabited by 
hordes of savages; and Che-keang^ Foo-kien^ Keang-si^and Kwang- 
tung^ in Woo-te's reign were covered with forests^ and the moun- 
foins were infested with wild beasts. According to native authors^ 
the free population under the Hans^ was about 83 millions. 

The civil wars which followed the division of the empire into 
three states imder the latter Hans^ must have considerably reduced 
tiie population. 



DATE 


OF CENSUS. 


A.D. 


220 


. 


i9 


220 


. 


y> 


im 


• 



KIlfODOM. 

Wei . , 

Shuh . . 
Woo . , 



FAMILIES. 

663,000 
200,000 
520,000 



\ INDITIDVALS. 

4,482,880 

900,000 

2,300,000 



1,368,000 



7,632,000 



During this period there were several epidemical diseases, but 
the disorganuBeid state of the country by what were called the 
'' yellow caps,^^ and the swarms of robbers, that for years lived on 
the industrious classes, firequently suspended agriculture, and 
caused extensive emigration. Ma-twan-lm says, '' the fields were 
covered with human skeletons, and great numbers of people were 
killed.^' 



218' Airrs and sciekocs^ b.c. 

The inlpiDiremeiits in arts and sciences under the Han Djmastjr^ 
are said to hare been paper^ pencils^ and ink ;— sculpture^ painting, 
and bell-eaating : bridge-bnilding and pagodas denote the existing' 
knowledge of architecture. One of their ancient bridges, or as 
they call them '' flying bridges/' still exists in Shen-se province ; 
it stretches 400 feet from one mountain to another, over a chasm 
600 feet deep. These bridges are said to be wide enough for four 
horsemen to ride abreast, and the sides are well protei^ed against 
accidents. Necessity compelled a Chinese general to invent them, 
to enable his troops to travel. 

Wan-te interdicted the use of gold and silver plates ; silk was 
common to all classes, and was cUefly made by females. Wan-te 
made his empress work at her needle as an example to all his sub- 
jects. As to agriculture, King-te says, ''wherefore should so 
much attention be paid to sculpture, and vain ornaments which 
onlv injure agriculture ? I plough the ground myself every year, 
and the Empress rears silk*worms. I aspire above all things to 
make agriculture appreciated.'^' In abundant seasons the govern^ 
ment became the purchasers, and when it was scarce they sdd 
to the people. This plan was soon abused ; and the state traf- 
ficked to the general injury of the public. The system is still 
maintained, and great abuses practised. 

A remonstrance was addressed to Ching-te on the great expendi- 
ture of the Boyal Mausolea. The Mausoleum of Chehwang-te was 
thus described : *' above the edifice rose like a mountain ; its height 
was 500 feet, and it was half a league in circuit. It was so capa- 
cious within, that you might walk about at your ease as in a 
saloon. Around were lamps and flambeaux ' fed with human fiat.^ 
On one side was a tank of mercury, in which swam birds of gold 
and silver ; on the other side were rich fdmiture, arms, and costly 
jewels.'' All the wealth contained in this edifice was carried 
off in the civil wars, when those places in general were plundered, 
avarice overcoming the strong prejudice against disturlyiiig the 
dead. 

The state slaves under the Hans are said to have numbered 
100,000, and* at some periods amounted to as many as 800,000. 
The expense of supporting them became sometimes so great that 
they were consequently enfranchised. Under Wan-te, frequent 
mention is met with of presents being made of slaves. It was 
made lawful for parents to sell their children, to prevent the inhu- 
man practice of infanticide. Woo-te prevented masters from 
kiliing their slaves at will. Gae-te limited the number of the 
slaves attached to the high officers. Kwang-woo assumed the power* 
of enfranchising private slaves by edict, a.u. 27, in which he de- 
dared every female free who should be purchased by any individual- 
to be his wife. Domestic slavery is treated of by Sir Oeorge 
Staunton as a mild species of servitude. 

The following remarkable document, taken from the ancient- state 



COLLEGE ADDRESS TO STUDENTS^ B.C. 2^19 

papers ooUeoted bj the Emperor Kaug^e, in 1716, shews that bow- 
ever disitracted the state of the empire^ literature was sedulously 
cultivated. The address is said to have been delivered to 700 
students at the college of Pan-yang. '^ You enter this place of 
learning in order that you may be taught to speak with propriety, 
to write correctly, and above all, how to live well. You come here 
ta lay the foundation of virtue, to qualify yourselves for being use- 
ful to the state ; in a word^ to acquire true wisdom. You must be 
forewarned that at first these studies have nothing agreeable or 
attractive in them ; on the contrary they may be repuMve to you. 
But in time you wUl imbibe a relish for them; different exercises will 
succeed each other; vou will gradually improve, and become fond of 
that study which daily increases the amount of your knowledge. 
You will make discoveries yourselves, and will be eager to prosecute 
them ; your mind$ will expand ; yotur hearts will dilate ; you will 
feel the intrinsic worth of wisdom, and haste in the pursuit of it, 
which surpasses every other, and yields more real enjoyment than 
all other pleasures combined. You will be astonished to find 
everything changed, almost without knowing how ; and the tinge 
which study imparts to the mind and heart is more permanent 
than any other dye ; for if properly taken, it retains for ever the 
beauty of its tints.'' 

THE TSIN DYNASTY, a.d. 264 to 420. 

The founder of this Dynasty was Sze-ma-yen, originally only a 
ruler over the Tsin principality;, but with an ambitious eye he 
watched the proceedings of the three last Emperors, saw th^oa 
wasting their strength, and, embracing the first opportunity, to 
the astonishment of every one, proclaimed himself Emperor in his 
own province, Honan. Having seen the cause of the destruction 
of the last dynasty, he banished all the partisans of the Han and 
Wei from court; and endeavoured to unite the empire under 
one head. After living a most sensual life, with, it is recorded, 
5,009 females in his harem, he died a.b. 290. 

A.D. 291. Hfvuy-te, who was very young when called to the 
throne, left the government to his wife, who not only employed 
people to murder her enemies, but actually perpetrated many cold- 
blooded murders with her own hands. The Huns again visited 
China, and committed great devastation. The Emperor died in 
807. A.D. 

A.n. 307. Htvae-ie, a well-disposed prince, endeavoured to re« 
store order, but the King of Han proclaimed himself Emperor, 
killed the young heir, took Hwae-te prisoner, and made him 
attend at his table as a servant. Of all the tyrants and relentless 
monsters that ever existed in China, Hwae-te surpassed them all. 
The next prince who should have reigned was Ming*te, but he was 
murdered. 



220 T6IN ASTf StNO DYNA8TIK6. 

A.B. 817. Sze^ma-juy, or Yttm-'te, a distant branch of the Tsin 
family^ escaped the slaughter, and after the death of the King of 
Han^ ifHs unanimously called to the throne; but bloodshed and 
misery ensued^ to increase which^ the Tartars joined different sidesj 
and engaged in the general plunder — their favorite work. Children 
were called to the throne, and when grown up, were disposed of in 
a private way. Others were kept concealed, and ignorant of what 
was occurring. One of them, Gan-te, had a general, named Lew-yu, 
who completely overthrew a numerous tribe of Tartars, which had 
disturbed the whole empire. Lew-yu murdered nearly all the 
imperial fSunily, except Kimg-te, who very soon abdicated the 
throne^ by which means this dynasty was terminated. 



SUNG DYNASTY, a.d. 420 to 479. 

Lew-yu, or Woo-te, poisoned the last Emperor, Kung-te, and 
n<)w reigned in his stead; his birth was humble; he possessed 
some talent, but his cruel disposition knew no bounds. The 
Tartars had made successful settlements in the north and west of 
China, and founded separate kingdoms for their chiefs. Under 
Wan-te, Budhism became the most fruitful source of annoyance to 
the government, and the votaries of this degrading doctrine were 
cruelly persecuted. Wan-te was killed by his own son, whose 
brother succeeded to the throne, under the name of Heaou-woo-te. 
This prince commenced well, but ended like all the rest ; and there 
is no iother event in the remainder of the dynasty but cold- 
blooded murders of the most horrible description. Of numerous 
lawful claimants to the throne, only one (Ming-te) died a natural 
death. There were eight reigning Emperors of this dynasty, • 
and six of them were cruel monsters. One of their chief gene- 
rals, Seaou Taouching, usurped the throne. He first obtained 
the principality of Tse, and set aside every branch of the Sung 
race, a.d. 477. 

Ihiring the sway of this dynasty, China was a scene of incessant 
contests, between foreign invaders and rebellious subjects, strug- ^ 
gling with each other for the divisions of an empire which had 
been consolidated by the Tsins and Hans. 

Independent of the Tartars, there were more than 100 tribes 
of Western Keangs, i.e. Tibetians, dispersed along the banks of 
the Yangtzekang and Hwang-ho rivers. Chinese historians dis- 
criminate between these tribes; some were settled and others 
roving. 

In this short space of time, the Tartars founded sixteen inde- 
pendent kingdoms in China, according to Mailla's translation of 
native history. 



TSE, LEANGj AND CHIN DYNASTIES. 321 

TSE DYNASTY, a.d. 480 to 50a, 

Seaou4aou^ching, the founder of this Dynasty, took the name of 
Kaou-te, and kept his court at Nanking. Native historians com- 
prise all the dynasties from Sung to Suy under the name of Nan- 
pih-chaou, i.e. southern and northern ; as there existed, for 200 
years, two independent empires in China, the North and South ; 
one Tartar, and the other Chinese. 

This Emperor promised well for the peace and prosperity of the 
empire ; was a man of vigorous mind, and although not a disciple 
of Confucius, he possessed great practical wisdom for governing. 
He died in a.d. 482. 

Woo-te, a son of the last Emperor, was very deficient of the 
abilities possessed by his father. Neglecting the government, he 
became an enthusiast in the doctrines of Budhism, so that super- 
stition reigned triumphant amongst court and people. Two con- 
tending philosophers graced this reign; one for the mortality of 
the soul, and the other for the immortality of the body : materialism 
in all its pernicious forms was established. The Emperor died 
A.n. 493. 

A.D. 494. A grandson of the last Emperor was the lawful heir, 
but the throne was usurped by Seaou-lun, the prime minister, who 
took the name Ming-te. The northern Emperor waged war against 
the usurper, but the natural death of both defender a^d usvirpor 
prevented a struggle. His third son, Faou-keuen, inherited the 
throne, a.d. 499, but was dethroned by one of his generals, 
Seaou-yen, who took the name of Leang, and established a new 
dynasty by that title. 

LEANG DYNASTY, peom 502 to 557 aj). 

Leat^g-woo-te renewed the war with the northern empire, which 
then was established in the province of Honan, and was governed 
by a most extraordinary woman, Mwag-^he^ who headed her army 
in most of the bloody contests. Leang-woo-te withdrew from the 
contest, being unable to obtain a victory; and devoted the re- 
mainder of his life to Budhism. Haw-king, one of his generals, 
usurped the throne, but spared the Emperor's life, but he soon 
died, a miserable outcast. The lawful heir was killed by the 
usurper. The people forced Yuen-te to the throne, but the 
general outmanoeuvred them all, and founded a new dynasty 
(CAfe). 

CHIN DYNASTY, from 557 to 589 a.p. 

* ( 

A.D. 657 to 589. Chin-pa-Seen, an usiuTper, only lived two years, 
and was succeeded by his son, Wan-te, who had abilities, and was 



222 aUY AND T1N« DYNA«TI£fl. 

likewise disposed to reliere the people from oppresaiye taxation. 
He died in 566: his successors, Pe-tsung, Chin-heu, Haw-te, 
all reigned for short periods, and wholly gave themselfes up to aen- 
suality. 

The Suy state at this period became powerful, and its rmler, 
Yang-keen, was an ambitious man ; he resolved to unite both the 
empires (which had been divided from 420 to 589 a.d., by the 
Yangtzekang river,) to his sway. This he easily accomplished, 
and became the founder of the Suy Dynasty a.d. 589. 

SUY DYNASTY, prom 590 to 618 a.t). 

Yang^keen, or Kaou-laoo, now governed the two kingdoms under 
his own crown, and this gave a shock to the Tartars^ To reconcile 
them, he bestowed a princess on one of their chiefs, which had the 
desired effect. The King of Corea refusing to pay tribute, was 
very soon humbled. This Emperor paid great attention to litera- 
ture. Domestic discord of a revolting kind hastened his death 
in 604. 

His son, Yang-te, succeeded him, by murdering the lawful heir ; 
he was also murdered himself, and the crown was usurped by one 
of his generals, Le-yuen, who changed the dynasty to the Tang, 
A.J>. 618. 

TANG DYNASTY, prom 619 a.d. 

Le^ynen, or Kaau-tsoo, an usurper, was descended fi*om a dis- 
tinguished family, and his military talents were of the first order ; 
he encouraged learning, and was a determined enemy of the Bud- 
hist and Taou sects. In the second year of his reign, the western 
provinces were attacked by the Turks, but the Emperor was a 
good politician as well as general; his policy made this horde of 
barbarians turn their attention to the western world, and thus 
saved China from their dreadful yoke. During six years' reign he 
subjugated the whole empire, and resigned in favour of his son, 
after nine years' reign. 

A.D. 627 to 640. Tae-tmng had fought many of his father's 
battles, and was, therefore, a warlike Emperor. His memory to 
the present day is revered by the Chinese ; his maxims are found 
in modem printed books, and his impartial administration is 
recorded as a good example to posterity. He conquered Tur- 
fan, expelled the Tibetians, and extended the frontiers of his 
empire to the borders of Persia. From a translation of a stone 
monument discovered in the province of Shen-se, in 1625, with 
Syriac characters on it referring to this period, it is conjectured 
that some Nestorian Christians were favoured by this Emperor. 
The monument had a cross on it, and an abstract of the Christian 
law. It will hereafter be more fally described. 



REBELL'IONSj MVRBEftS^ AND INFAMY. 223 

' Tb& successor to Tae-tsung^ being a scholar^ great expectations 
were antieipated from his reign ; but^ unfortunately for the em- 
pire^ the harem ruled, with the aid of the eunuchs, over Hie Em- 
peror, and two of his successors. 

CbuUff 'Stung ascended the throne, a.d. 684, but the empire may 
be said to have been governed by his mother, represented as a most 
cruel monster. The eunuchs now controlled all the affairs of the 
government, the Emperor's authority being nominal. It would be 
difficult to make any distinction between all the Emperors that 
disgraced this dynasty ; imbecility was their prevailing character. 
Heen-stung was a vile monster ; Chaou4$ung endeavouring to free 
himself from the eunuchs, called to his aid a band of robbers, who 
successfully carried his intention into effect, but dethroned the 
Emperor in 903. 

The chief of the robbers put Chaou-suen-te on the throne, and 
subsequently he usurped it himself, and founded a dynasty called 
How Leanff, and either banished or killed every branch of the Tang 
dynasty. 

THE HOW LEANG DYNASTY, feom 907 to 9?3 a.d. . 

The robber and founder of this Dynasty, with all his followers, 
eontrived to reign sixteen years ; the history of which surpassed, 
if possible, all others, in the usual train of murders, rebelliotis, ab- 
dications, infamy, cruelty, and imbecility. The Tartars made them- 
selves masters of a large portion of China, settled in Leaou-tung, 
and established an independent empire. The usurper was mur- 
dered by his son, who in turn was killed by his own brother, and 
be was attacked and dethroned, a.d. 923, by a descendant c^ Le- 
ke-kung, who ascended the throne, and founded the How Tang 
dynasty. 

THE HOW TANG DYNASTY, from 924 to 936 a.d. 

Chwang-too, the founder, was in the last dynasty an able general ; 
but as soon as he obtained the throne, his licentious and cruel 
disposition was exhibited. His subjects were reduced to starva- 
tion, while he hoarded up uncounted wealth ; his avarice knew no 
^bounds. Several rebellions broke out during his reign; he was 

. killed in battle by an arrow. 

A.D. 926. Ming-tsung was an adopted son of the last Emp^(»r, 
and a Tartar by birth. He successfully fought against his own 
Qouutrymen, greatly reduced the influence of the nobles, and for 
nine years paid strict attention to the social wants of his subjects. 

. The lawful heir was dethroned by his son-iu-law, She-king-tong ; 
tha trpops joined the usurper. The Emperor, seeing no hope of 
l^DOQpfifdl rei^ance^ destroyed all the insignia of royaltyykiUed his 
empress, all his childfeni and then himself. a.d. 936« 



8SHl ntKVOQhW WIVB THE TAftTAES. 



THE HOW TSIN DYNASTY, feom 986 to 946 ad. 

She-Hnff'tonfff the usurper, rewarded the Tartan for aiding him 
to ascend the throne, by ceding the province of Chih4e, and a larg« 
annual tribute. His son, Chuh-te, succeeded him, a.p. 948, anid 
was killed while opposing the Tartars. His general usurped the 
throne, calling it the How-han dynasty. 



HOW HAN DYNASTY, from 947 to 960 a.b- 

Le-che^ffuen, the general in the last dynasty and founder of this, 
kept the Tartars at bay for the short period of his reigUk His son, 
Yin-te, was no soon^ on the throne, than the western proTinces of 
the empire rose in rebellion. The Emperor was slain on his way 
to the scene of action. His brother, Lew^pin, was compelled to 
yield the throne to one of the generals, Kwo^wei, who as usual 
founded a new dynasty. 



HOW CHOW DYNASTY, peom 951 to 960 a.d. 

The general, Kwo^wei, only reigned three years ; but the throne 
was at last honoured by a just and able prince, 8he49ung, His at* 
tentiooiiwas first turned to education, which had been long on the 
wane. He is also reported to have destroyed the idols, or converted 
tbem into cash. He was so enamoured of agriculture as to haire 
a plough placed in a conspicuous place in the palace. He waged 
war against the prince of Han, but was unable to keep the wily 
Tartars within bounds. His son Kung4e was a minor, and was 
placed under a prime minister, Chatm^kwang^yiUy who by uniyersal 
consent was called to the throne himself, and thus became fathor 
of the celebrated 8ung Dynasty. 



THE SUNG DYNASTY, raoM 960 to 1279 a.d. 

ChoQVr'kwang^jfm, the fortunate soldier, had talents for miUterf 
exploits, and an ambition to govern the whole empire bimsen ; 
some states surrendered quietly; but the northern Han prinees 
joined the Tartars ; temporary victories and defeats were num^ 
rous; and .the blood that was shed, surpassed any thing reccnrded 
in Chinese hist(»y. He died in 976 1 his intentions were good, 
but all his time was taken up in defending the empire. 

A.p. 977. Tae-tmnff succeeded his fathor, and immediately at- 
tacked the Tartars with an immense army, who were all cut to 
pieces. , The administi*atipn of domestic affairs dainling Ms atten- 



:W)PULAT10N 800 YEkM AG6, fejS 

tion, hfe made peace with the Tartars, and left them quietly to enjoy 
Leaoa«tiing. He died a.b. 997. 

Chin^tsung^ his successor^ finding it impossible to overcome the 
TfottstBy paid them a large tribute ; turned his attention to agri- 
enlttuie, and obtained a census of the male population who wer6 
able to pay taxes ; they amounted to 9j995,!?29, which appears 
extraondinary lifter centuries of carnage. He was a weak, super- 
stitious monarch, and died of a broken heart, owing to a defbstt he 
sustained &om the Tartars. 

A.D. 1023, Tlfiff'tsunff, his successor, was a minor; the ungo- 
yemable Tartars threatened a rebellion, and obtained an enlarged 
tribute of 200,000 taels. He died in 1063, leaving the throne to 
Ills nephew. 

Ying^sunfff A.D, 1064; Shin-tsunff, a.d. 1068; and Che-isung, 
A.D. 1086, may be said to have governed by their wives or mothers } 
some of whom displayed talent. 

• Hwvy4mmg took a new mode of driving the Tartars from Leaou^ 
tang, by entering into treaty with the Kin Tartars, Who effectually 
performed the service assigned them, and then kept possession 
themselves of Leaou-tung, together with Chih-li and Shense pro- 
vinces^ and made the Emperor prisoner in 1126. 

Fr%'nr4auntfs first act was to put his ministers to death, for be* 
traying his father into the hands of his enemies ; the Tartars, em- 
boldened by success, took possession of the palace and the province 
of Honan, adopting the Chinese name Kin for their reign. 

A»i^. 1127. Kaoou^tmmgy brother to the last Emperor, removed 
his court to Hang-choo, the capital of the province of Che-keang j 
and, failing to disturb the Tartans, tried what eiFect flattery would 
bave : addressing the Tartars, he called himself Chin, which sig-^ 
nifies servant^ (the same term is used by Chinese subordinates to 
the present day.) The only effect of this act of humility, was the ob- 
tainment of the dead bodies of the imperial family. The barrier to 
farther encroachments was the natural one of the Yangtzekang, 
to the north of which the Tartars governed. 

The subsequent monarchs, HeaotL-tsung, a.d. 1162, and Kwang- 
tmng^ a.d. 1189, appear to have been content with their diminished 
territory; but their successor, Ning^tsung^ a.d. 1194, invited the 
Mongol Tartars to aid him in banishing the Kin race of Tartars^ 
which was effectually done by their general, Genghis^ Who retained 
possession of all the places recovered, on which was founded the 
Yum or Mongol dynasty. It should be remarked here, that a 
nimiber of the Tartars escaped from the Mongol and Chinese pur- 
suit, and settled in Mantchouria j their subsequent victory, after an 
exile of 400'years,ov^ the Ming Dynasty, a.d. 1644, is well known. 

Le^tsung now satir his error; the Mongols became much morc^ 
finrmidiiMS'to the Chinese than the expelled Tartars, and no longer 
disguked; their intention. Too^tsungy his son, ascended th^ throne^ 
A.^• Ij^i jiiidt aacrifieing his empire at the shrine of pleasure, so 

Q 



DSSTBVCTIQN OF THE SVNO DYNASTY. 

diflgostod the Chinese noUes, that many of them joined Kubhi^ 
khan, who now governed the Tartars. Too-tsung left three sona^ 
who were all young. The second son^ Twan-tsung, made a feeble 
resistancej was compelled to take refiige in Foo-keen province; and 
then fled to Canton with a large portion of the grandees^ where he 
died A.D. 1277. The Mongols sent a fleet in pursuit of the re- 
maining branches of the Sung Dynasty ; terms of captirity were 
tendered to the grandees, who indignantly spumed the proposaL 
Loosew-foo, a faithful minister of the late dynasty;, had charge of 
the young Emperor, who preferred death to captivity. The last 
branch was destroyed by drowning, his wife and children, with him- 
self, by which no competitor was left for the Mongols. 



THE MONGOLS. 

Necessity appears to be the chief cause of these hardy tribes ex- 
tending their dominion ; having nothing to lose, no homestead to 
protect or return to, locust-like they went forth devouring. Not 
even possessing geographical knowledge, or the instruments of 
war ; nothing, in fact, but their horses, which, like their riders, were 
well inured to hardships and privations. 

The mind contemplates with astonishment the extent of territory 
which became subject to those ruthless rovers : India, Western 
Asia, Bukhara, and China. 

The Mongol monarch, " Genghis,'^ while a vassal to the court 
of Peking, sent an embassy, whidi, in the most haughty manner, 
demanded tribute ; this was too much for '^ the Son of Heaven ;" 
but while deliberations were going on, in a.d. 1212, Genghis' 
army crossed the Great Wall, and took possession of two provinces, 
Shan-se and Shen-se, which comprise 100,000 square miles, and 
100 cities. 

The Sung Dynasty, which was then on the throne of China, made 
terms with the invaders ; and the better to insure peace, gave a 
princess and an immense dowry. Treaties were no sooner made 
than broken, so that Genghis possessed himself of five provinces, 
and the command of the Yellow River. At this period his sway 
extended from the Caucasus to the sea, and from Tibet to the 
Frozen Ocean. The Chinese policy, at this period, in inviting the 
Mongols in order to oppose their eastern enemies, the Tartars, 
proved a heavy blow to the proud monarch of China. The Mon- 
gols no sooner defeated the Tartars, than they turned on the Em^- 
peror of China, whom they drove to the south of the Yellow River. 

The covetous eye of Ghenghis was next directed to the vast 
territory of Mohammed, Sultan of Khorassan (in Persia), which 
he invaded with an army of 700,000 men. The force of the Sultan 
is said to have been more than half that amount, but relying too 
much on fortifications, he was completely overthrown, and thus 



THE MONGOLS. — GENGHIS. — KUBLAI. S27 

Bokhdra^ Khowarism, Herat, Otrar, Balkh, and Samarcand, to- 
gether with Kandahar, fell a prey to Genghis. 

Previous to his death, a.d. 1227, Genghis was sole master of 
central Asia. His dying request to his four sons was to complete 
the conquest of China. 

The four sons mutually divided their vast possessions, and de- 
clared Oktai Grand Khan of the Mongols and Tartars. No pro- 
ceedings were taken to extend their dominion in China, until 
KnbKa, a grandson of Genghis, was put in possession of the five 
northern provinces. 

Kubliay being an artful monarch, gained over to his aid the 
grandees, and procured European and Arabian engineers, so that 
a few years gave him possession of the Chinese Empire, a.d. 1279. 

Kublia made an unsuccessful attempt on Japan ; but rendered 
tributary to his empire. Cochin China, Siam, Bengal, and Tibet. 
Under his excellent administration, China never was so prosperous 
or happy. 

Hulagu, another grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia, and 
took possession of the city of Bagdad. The only check the descend- 
ants of Genghis met in their wide spread devastation, was from 
the Mamelukes in Egypt. 

A.D. 1235. Oktai, being in full possession of Northern China, 
turned his attention towards Europe, and despatched Batu, his 
nephew, with an army of 500,000 men, which completely overthrew 
the daring Turkomans, the roving tribes of Caucasus and Russia ; 
Poland, Silesia, the cities of Lublin and Cracow, also became a 
prey to the Mongols. Their next conquest was Hungaria ; they 
completely scattered the powerful army of King Bela, taking pos- 
session of every place northward of the Danube. 

In A.D. 1240, Batu had fully prepared a large force to march 
against the Turks, but was stayed by the hand of death. Proposals 
were made at this time to Barkah, Batu's successor, both by Louis 
the Ninth, and Pope Innocent the Fourth, to aid him in the con- 
templated campaign against the Turks ; their object was very ap- 
parent, viz., to assist the Crusaders. Barkah^s attention being sud- 
denly called to Bussia, the Crusaders were disappointed. 

Unity, the bond of strength, appeared to be the policy adopted 
by the two generations that followed Genghis ; jealousy or rival- 
ship was unknown ; each, in their separate vast dominions, enjoyed 
peace ; and when necessary, they united their forces and interests. 

A. D. 1310. Vast as the Mongol Empire had hitherto been, its 
decline was now visible ; strife and dissensions split their empires 
into new kingdoms ; and the degenerated race of Genghis warmly 
embraced Mohammedanism, but pertinaciously kept aloof from the 
Tiirks. About this period, Timour, a native of Samarcand, an- 
nounced himself as a true descendant of Genghis. His warlike 
propensities were early displayed, for at the age of thirteen he dis- 
tinguished himsdf in the battle-field, and at thutjr-four had imperial 

q2 



228 DBCLINX AND FAIX OP THE MON0OL8. 

aQtbority oyer Turkestan and Western or Independent Tartarj. 
Timour, after conquering what might then be called the whole 
world in upwards of thirty successful campaigns, and usurping 
twenty-seven crowns, like his predecessor Genghis, was atoiqpea in 
his ambition bv the Egyptians. To perpetuate his victories, he 
erected, it is said, a pyramid of 90,000 human skulls atBagdad. Dur- 
ing this period nine Mongol Emperors ruled over China. But the 
hateful race was at last dethroned, and a native Chinese Emperor 
was again enthroned. When Timour heard of the down&Jl of the 
Mongols in China, his rage knew no bounds, and turning his great 
army from the shores of the Bosphorus, was fully determined to 
wreak his vengance on China; but death put a stop to hia earthly 
career in the 70th year of his age. a.d. 1405. 



THE MING DYNASTY a.d. 1868 to 1644. 

In the year 1868, Hungym, the first monarch of the Ming Djmasty, 
took full possession of the Chinese Empire : from a scullion he rose 
to be a monarch, and became one of the best men who sat on the 
Chinese throne. He died a.d. 1899, solemnly taking leave of his 
ministers^ and appointing as his successor his grandson. 

Kiemoan though only 16 years of age assumed the empire ; his 
reign was most unpropitious. The old monarch had given large 
provinces to his sons, they were jealous of the young prince being 
placed over them, and they immediately began to rebd : one of them 
was seized by the ministers of the Emperor and banished; another 
killed himself; another lost his possessions, and was sentenced to 
end his days in exile ; another (the Prince of Yen,) took up arms 
to, as he said, deliver his family from bad ministers, but really to 
get possession of the throne; which he did in 1404, the young Em- 
peror having been persuaded to escape and turn monk, which he 
did. He wandered about for forty years, and afterwards died, un- 
thought of, in prison. 

The reign of the Prince of Yeti^yunghh was most bloody and 
revengeful ; murdering all those who ' supported his predecessor. 
He issued an amnesty to the provincial authorities ; they wotdd not 
however submit to ms government ; this did not stop his proceed- 
ings, he immediately prepared for hostilities; removed lus court 
from Nanking, made Pekin the capital city; and died in the year 
1425, after waging war all his life : before his death he erected a 
pyramid, to witness the extent of his conquests. His son Hunghi 
who succeeded, published a general amnesty, and died a.d. \4&6* 

He was succeeded by his son Siuetite, who carried on a war with 
the Cochin-Chinese, by which his armies were annihilated. He 
was a lover of peace, and a good statesman, and died a.u. 1436, 
leaving the throne to his son — 

Tingtaung then only eight years of age, whose mother was 



MING, OE CHINISSE DYNASTY. 229 

appointed regent dnring tlie minority. A Tartar chief of the 
name of Yesien had made several inroads on the Chinese territory ; 
Wangchin, the minister, (a.d. 1450) assembled a large army to 
chastise him ; but when in the middle of the desert, was attacked by 
iJie Tartar chief, defeated, and the young Emperor taken prisoner, 
for whom the Tartar chief refused to take any ransom. In this 
emergency, the empress dowager placed his brother Kingti on the 
throne ; he however refused to retire, when Yesein proposed to 
liberate the captive Emperor. Ying-tsun not being ambitious, 
retired into private life, and again ascended the throne, on his 
brother^s death in 1458. He died in the year a.d. 1465, and was 
succeeded by his son— 

Chingwn, who was reared among women and eunuchs, became a 
complete child of the palace, and gave the eunuchs great power, 
which caused general dissatisfaction ; he died of grief on account 
of the death of his wife, and left the country in a miserable state. 
He was succeeded by his son Ching4e^ a.d. 1506, then but 15 
years of age. Great power was also given by this sovereign to 
the eunuchs, who plundered the country; the people rose in 
several rebellions against the government, but were always re 
pressed. From a census taken in his reign, China contained 50 
million of souls. Ching-te died a.d. 1522, leaving no children, 
and was succeeded by his cousin Kiat-sing, whose first act was a 
general amnesty for all political offences ; he then gave himself 
up to poetry and song, and did nothing for the good of the people. 
The Mongols, who had traded on the frontiers in cattle, now broke 
into rebellion in consequence of the exactions of the officers; 
their chief Yeuia laid the whole country waste, forced his way to 
the very gates of Peking, and compelled the Emperor to permit 
them to establish fairs. During this reign there was a continued 
petty warfare between the Chinese and the Japanese. Kiat-sing 
died after a useless reign of forty years, a.d. 1566, and was suc- 
ceeded by Inrng-king, who did all in his power to settle the tran- 
quillity of the frontier, which the majority of his ministers opposed : 
it was afterwards settled by a commercial treaty. He died in 1572. 
Wan-tiy his successor, was only ten years of age at his accession ; 
during his minority he followed his ministers' advice, and appeared 
to promise well. Mathew Bicd obtained access to court in 1583, 
and presented the Emperor with a repeating watch, who ordered a 
tower to be built to keep it safe. The intercourse, commenced 
under his predecessor with western nations, now became an object 
of solicitude. Through meddling in the affairs of Japan, he drew 
himself into several wars, which always ended in the defeat of the 
Chinese. These contests lasted for thirty years, and China lost 
part of its territory, but gained it again on the death of the Japanese 
chief Tarkosama, a.d. 1598. Ricci meanwhile persevered in his 
mission, and had an edict issued against him by a tribunal at Pekin, 
to the dTect th«t his preaching was of no value, and that he be 



390 TALL OF CHINESE 0& MINQ DYNASTY. 

sent bads: again to his country. A few years afterwards^ the some 
tribunal (the tribunal of rights) praised the skill of the foreigners 
in astronomy^ and recommended them to be employed in that 
department. Another war broke out on the frontier through the 
tyranny and robbery of the Chinese on the Tartars, who were a 
scattered people; their chief Tienminff, having a few naked savages, 
proclaimed himself an Emperor, and to avenge his father's death 
swore he would annihilate 200,000 Chinese; he kept his oath, for he 
carried fire and sword to the gates of Pekin ; the Chinese generals, 
as usual, flying all ways from him. This destruction and the loss 
of his wife broke the Emperor's heart ; he died a.b. 1620. He 
was succeeded by his son Kwanff-'tsung, who exerted himself much 
to put the state in order, but died from bis exertions in 16S^1. 
He was succeeded by his son, a diffident youth of sixteen years of 
age; the Chinese still continued their oppressions on the Mantchous, 
who again resorted to arms. The Emperor did not live to behold 
the result; he died a.d. 1627. His successor, Hwan-tsung was 
a great friend of letters, but was not able to meet the coming tem- 
pest. The Tartar leader Taitsung demanded an unconditioaal 
submission to his arms ; one of the best of the Chinese ministers 
was beheaded in the streets as a traitor, for recommending peace. 
The Tartar general still advanced, was proclaimed Emperor in 1686, 
under the name of Tae-tsing, i.e. ^^ great purity. ^^ The Chinese 
could have still resisted, but for their own feuds ; one of their 
cluefs, a cruel monster, ravaged the central province and got posses- 
sion of the city of Peking, which was opened to him by the eunuchs. 
The Emperor when he heard this, cruelly murdered his haiem> 
only one of his daughters escaping, and then hung himself. There 
was found in his girdle a condemnation of himself and a request to 
save the people. Thus died the last of the Ming Dynasty, a.d. 1644. 

THE TAE-TSING, OE PRESENT TARTAR DYNASTY. 

a.d. 1644 TO 1846. 

The present dynasty of China, are Mantchou Tartars, and are of 
the Tongoosian race. Their first connexion with China^ was when 
the Mongols in 1332 were driven from the throne ; some of their 
tribes took refuge in the Mantchou territory, which gave offence to 
the Chinese, who by force compelled them to sue for peace, but 
permitted them to trade. The origin of the family is uxdLnown, as 
the country was destitute of learning. The first attack on China 
by the Mantchous was in 1583, by Tae»tsoo, who took the frontier^ 
city Tooloon ; the Chinese consenting to pay 800 ojb. of silver 
annually. Tae-tsoo subsequently discovered the Chinese govern- 
ment fomenting a rebellion in his kingdom, and made a tow to 
extirpate the Mongol race. A battle was fought betwe^i them in 
1593, in which the Chinese were defeated. Tae-tsoo declared hiai- 
^If independent, and proclaimed himself Teen^ming ^^HeavetC^ de* 



PRBSXNT TARTAK DYNASTY BI8E. 281 

erte?^ Previous to marching against the Chinese^ Teen-ming drew 
np seren articles, charging the Chinese government with oppres- 
sion, deceit, and bad-faith. He was succeeded by his son TBung-tih^ 
who entitkd his dynasty Ta-tsing C^ great purity") and first 
brought his troops to the frontiers of Leaoutung, but was confined 
to that tCTritory by a brave Chinese general, JVoo-san-kwei. A 
rebellion at this time breaking out in China, the general concluded 
a peace, and invited the Mantchous to aid him in expelling the 
robber^chi^ Le-tsze-ching from China. By the aid of the Mant- 
chous the rebels were defeated, but they seeing an opportunity of 
obtaining the throne of China refused to return home. In the 
mean time Tsung-tih died, and his nephew was proclaimed Em- 
peror, under the name of Shun-ehe in 1644. At the same time the 
man d a r ins declared a grandson of Ching-stung Emperor at Nanking. 

No proof is required of the state of the empire, when a handful 
of awuiliary troops possessed themselves of it, without even the 
trouble of fighting for such vast dominions. The first act of 
the usurpers was to compel the Chinese to adopt their custom of 
wearing theic hair. In selecting this badge of subjection nothing 
could be more galling to the Chinese, as hitherto they never cut 
an inch of their hair. The terms were banishment or acquiescence ; 
the consequence was a general revolt, in which the Mantchous 
were nearly overpowered. 

Two princes of the late Ming dynasty. Tang and Yung4iehf 
were declared successively Emperors ; the former was proclaimed 
at Canton, and temporarily resisted the invaders in the midland 
provinces. But the Chinese were exceedingly deficient in love 
of their country or of freedom. Tang was taken prisoner and 
beheaded, and Yung-leih being forsaken fled to the King of Ava, 
where he organized a force and attempted to take the province of 
Kwei-choo, but was killed by the general Woo-san-kwei, the same 
man who first introduced the usurpers, by the way of aiding the 
Chinese. 

Of all the monsters that ever disgraced humanity, Chang-heeU' 
cMng was probably the greatest. He was a daring robber by pro- 
fession, with the command of a powerful army ; he routed the 
Tartars from the province of Sze-chuen, and proclaimed himself 
Emperor. His ferocious disposition was first vented on the literati 
and Budhist priests, whom he invited to a feast; not one of whom 
ever returned alive. His next display was on the news of one of 
his generals going over to the Mantchous ; on hearing which, he 
murdered every human being belonging to the capitid Ching-too. 
The males one day, to the number it is said of 600,000. 
The females the second day, to the number of 400,000. He was 
killed by one of his own soldiers. The next enemy the usurpers 
had to contend with, and the only one in the empire, was ddng" 
elmg-hmg, better known as Coamga, the daring pirate of Formosa. 

1650. Coxinga had frequent encounters with the Tartars, and was 



fjtSd MING AND TARVA» DTNA0TII8 CON<mit. 

always either viotorioits, or escaped being taken prisener^ He 
ooeupied the island of Tsung-ming in IBd?, at the entrance of 
the Yangta^kaug river, and took possession of Nanking, by the aid 
of a fleet of 800 vessels, which had a formidable appearance on the 
great river. The easy manner in which possession was obtained^ 
and the hatred of the inhabitants to the Tartars, caused them te neg- 
leptthe fortifications; they were consequently compelled by die 
Tartars to fly to their ships, but not without great slaughter* 

165 1» Amawang, Regent, dying, his nephew Shun^che, althongh 
young, had derived a great deal of instruction from his tutor, Adnn 
Schaal, a Oerxnan Jesuit, who was president of the matfaematieal 
board. 

All the domestic foes were either killed or bought over, etcept 
the pirate and patriot, Coxinga, whose only strength lay <m the 
seacoast. Ooxinga despairing of success against the Tsrtars^ at- 
tacked Formosa, and banished the Dutch from that island. 

1666h The Russians were tlie first to send an embassy to the 
new dynasty; but refosing to perform the nine prostrations, were 
sent baek without an audience. Shun-che and his ministry were 
all for conciliation, and the Emperor not only wrote on the subject 
but actually preadied out of a pulpit. (See his sermons in another 
part of this work, under ^' Sacred Instructions.)'^ The Tartar 
^lirp^s having little or no form of religion of their own, adopted that 
portion* of tl]^ Chinese which pays such regard to the dead. 
The Emperor was not long on the throne when -he made a pilgrim- 
age to the tombs of the Ming Emperors, and finding them in a 
dilapidated state had them beautified at a great expense. 

1662. Shun-che died in 1661, after reigning eleven years, and 
was succeeded by his son Kang^-hCy wha was a minor. A regency 
was appointed, who failing or fearing to combat the great pirate and 
patriot, Coxinga, issued an order requiring all the inhabitants of 
the coast to remove to the interior of the country, under pain of 
death. This -policy did not meet the views of the young prince, 
and he claimed the throne, on the death of one of the regents; the 
other he put to a cruel death. The skill, energy, and personal 
courage of Kang-he were soon tested. Suspecting the fidelity of 
the old general Woo*san, who had sold his former sovereign, he 
was ordered to attend his Majesty, (his son being a hostage at 
Peking) which he did at the head of a rebel force, assist^ by 
the Viceroys of Foo^kien and Canton, and the naval forces of 
the pirate; at the same time the north was invaded by a Mongol 
prince. In this emergency, Kang-he displayed abilities of no or- 
dinary kind ; he attacked the Mongol prince himself, and routed 
him effectually ; dissension was soon in the other camps, so that 
they became an easy prey, one after the other. His attention was 
next directed to check the chief of the Eleuths or Kalmuks, who 
}iad for some time been extejiding his authority over the Kalkas i 



CHAKACTBft OF BHPEROR KAN0-H6. 2SS 

aiid KangJie, dreading that he might ultimately become a troittble- 
acmie frontier foe, at the head of a large army^ not only ohedted 
him, but made the Kalkas tributa^ to the Chinese Empire, and 
thus obtained an ascendancy over Mongolia. The Russians at this 
time were encroaching ; Kang-he sent them a treaty (see foreign 
interoourse) and accompanied the embassy by a large army, to 
enforce its ratification. There only remained the pirate Coxinga 
to conqunr; he was aided by the defences the Dutch had IdFt 
behind them in Formosa. In 1681, the pirate prince dying, was suc- 
ceeded by his son, who quietly surrendered the island to Kang'-he, 
and reeeiyed in return a titular distinction. It is worthy of remark 
that foreign commerce was strictly prohibited by this Emperor. 
But the chief of Canton allowed the Europeans to trade for 
his own priTste benefit. The Emperor being informed of this 
violation of his orders, sent the chief a rope made of silk, with 
which he hanged himself, together with upwards of one hunched of 
his sui^ordinate o£Scers; thus all danger of revolt was removed 
throughout the empire. Kang-he devoted every moment he 
could spare from public bumness, from the time he reaefaed the 
throne, to acquire knowledge, became a thorough mathemati* 
cian, and now set to work to improve the general goveimnent of 
the empire. The pruning-knife was first applied to the Hanlin 
college ; three-fourths of the members, not being able to answer 
his majesty in some questions, were expelled. Kang-he was a 
thinking man, and decidedly the best, if not the only, seholav in 
his dominions; his dissertations on government under the name 
of " Sacred Instructions/^ are full of sound sense. He was the 
only monarch. of the dynasty that visited all the provinces, (north 
of the Yangtzekang) examined most minutely into the administra- 
tion of affairs, and carried with him a commissariat to supply hm 
large train that the people shoidd be at no expense. He had 
the geographical position of all considerable places ascertained; 
caused all the provinces to be surveyed by Europeans ; published 
a dictionary of the Chinese language, and lest his own language 
should become obsolete, had also one prepared in the Mantchou : 
in every way he encouraged learning. His love of music was 
intense, and the death of his favorite musician (a European) 
caused great grief in the palace. His whole life was an arduous 
struggle to benefit his subjects. 

1709. Kang-he discovered a plot between his two sons to 
obtain possession of the throne, which caused him a severe fit of 
illness ; being given over by the state physicians, recourse was had 
to the Jesuits, who had cured him of the ague some years pre- 
viously ; on this occasion they were equally successfrd. 

1721. Kang-he was now sixty years on the throne: rejoicings 
became general all over the empire ; more than human honours 
were ofiered to him by mandarins and parasites ; and the same 



284 CONSOLIDATION OF TA&TAB OOYSKNMSNT. 

year saw the Eleuths destroyed by his genenib» and Tibet made 
tributary to China. He died the following year, ficom the effects 
of a cold, having preyiously appointed his fourth son his suocessor. 

No prince ever ascended the throne of China with greats 
prospects of a happy reign than Yuf^-ching. Being ignorant of 
the value of science, and jealous of some of the imperial faznilj 
who had embraced Christianity, his first act was to hanisii all the 
missionaries, who had become very numerous in every province; 
only a few were aQowed to remain in Peking, whose services eonld 
not be dispensed with. 

These orders against Christianity were the signal for the man- 
darins to vent their long-smothered hatred against Europeans; 
extortion and cruelty were^ therefore, perpetrated with impoaiityi 

This reign was free from any domestic troubles of a political 
nature ; but the calamities of dearth and want were more nmnerouB 
that had been known for the same space of time in China. An 
earthquake occurred in 1730, in the provinoejof Chih»le, whidi did 
great injury to Peking* 

The reign of Yung<-ching lasted thirteen years: two acts dis^ 
grace it, notwithstancUng his excellent published works on charity 
and benevolence (see '^ Sacred Instructions^^), viz. : severe craelty to 
his thirteen brothers, and the extirpation of Christianity, He died 
in 1736. 

1736, Keen-lungy the eldest illegitimate son of the late Em- 
peror, was unexpectedly called to the throne. He became popnlar 
by dedaring a general amnesty, and restoring all the relatives of 
the last Emperor to their liberty ; but their paternal property 
being confiscated, their temporal position was not much improved 
by a state allowance of thirteen shillings sterling per months with 
a portion of rice. 

Keen-lung was not long on the throne when the Eleuths and 
Kalkas, who had long disturbed the peace of the empire, and, 
although repeatedly conquered, were a powerful ixation still, could 
not agree in dividing their territory, and solicited Keen-lung as a 
mediator ; this office he readily accepted, by sending a powerful 
army, which totally extirpated the Kalmucks, and annexed thdr 
territory (Ele) to China^ in 1756. 

The Mohammedans who inhabited Little Bukhara, were next 
attacked by Keen-lung's merciless troops, — cut to pieces, — ^a part of 
their territory joined to the province of Kansuh, and the remainder 
made a dependency, constituting the eight Mohammedan cities» 

January, 1767. This year an excuse was made to attaek the 
territories of the King of Ava, but very few of the invading sol* 
diers ever returned. The amount of the Chinese army on this 
occasion is stated to have been 250,000 foot and S6,000 horse; 
the chief part of which was sent against Bamoo. In November 
of the same year, Keen-lung sent an ^'invincible'' army to take 
vengeance, consisting of 60,000 horse and 600,000 foot, under the 



AGGRANmSElCENT ANB CRUBLTT OF KSBNTUNG. 285 

coBUQand of his son-in-law, Mjeng. After two years' tmsuccessfiil 
fightings and the Chinese army being reduced to one-fourth, terms 
of peace were proposed, and accepted by the Burmese generals, 
without consulting their king, who, on their return, were disgraced 
for permitting a Chinaman to return alive {See "Foreign Intercourae 
wUh Birmah*'), 

Affcer the taste of the Emperor for foreign conquests had been 
satiated, rebellion and civil war engaged his attention, but it was 
no soon^ suppressed in one province than it broke out in another. 
His character, after sixty years reign, was always marked with the 
greatest cruelty to his enemies, and generals who returned un» 
successful : aggrandizement of the empire was his ruling passion* 
He abdicated in favour of his son Kea-king, 

1796. Kea^kinff was not well seated on the throne, when rebel- 
lion brc^e out in several provinces, and being a weak-minded 
prince, and wholly given up to licentiousness, he adopted the 
method of quelling them by spending large sums of money in 
bribery, and promoting the leaders to offices of trust. His peace 
was also disturbed, and he narrowly escaped with his life, by an 
organized mutiny of his own kindred. 

During the first ten years of his reign, all law and order were set 
at defiance by a band of pirates, who carried destruction along the 
whole coast. The aid of the Portuguese government was solicited, 
but to no useful purpose. A treaty of peace was entered into, 
therefore, with the pirates ; their chiefs were promoted as captains 
in the imperial navy, and a grand entertainment was given in 
Canton to celebrate the peace. 

The persecution of the Christians was carried on with unabated 
zeal until his death. In 1818 he was veiy near falling a sacrifice 
to the enmity of some members of his own family, and was saved 
by the courage displayed by his son, the present Emperor. His 
life and reign is blank, as no just, noble, or generous action can 
be discovered ; he himself was the patron of bribery and corrup- 
tion, which flourished in full vigour in every part of his vast 
dominions. There was not a year which he reigned, but disturb- 
ances of a serious nature broke out in one or other of the pro- 
vinces, none of which were put down by the strong hand of the 
law^ his successor has, in consequence, more or less resorted to 
the same mode of obtaining bloo^ess victories. He died in 1820. 

The present Emperor of China, Taouk-wang, " Reason's glory,'* 
was bom on the tenth of the eighth moon, 1781, and, consequently, 
is now in his sixty-sixth year. He succeeded his father, Kea-king, 
in August, 1821. An extract from the first document issued by 
his majesty may IQustrate his government. 

"The Chamber of Ministers (Nuy-ko) has received with due 
respect the following imperial edict. 

" From the late Emperor, who has now gone the great journey, 
I received the utmost possible kindness and care; and ftom him 



886 TAOV^KWANO«-*TKBft«NT BHPCAOR. 

I derived my being; his gracious kindness was infinite^ like that 
of the glorious heavens above. This year he was to solace with 
his presence Lwang-yang^ in Tartary^ and I^ the Emperor, followed 
in hiB train. The weather being hot^ he was taken ill on his journey^ 
and Ij the-Emperorj beat the ground with my head, and called on 
heaven to bring him back — ^but in vain. During the twentv-five 
years of his reign he suppressed rebellion, and gave tranquillity to 
millions of common people. The dragon on horseback has as- 
cended and become a guest on high. All creatures endued with 
blood and breath mourn with sincere and grateful feelings ; but 
how much more deeply do I, the Emperor, feel. I received his late 
majesty's last will, commanding that the funeral mourning should 
be the same as usual/ '^ 

A second proclamation was issued as follows : " My sacred and 
indulgent father had, in the year that he began to rule alone, 
silently settled that the divine utensil (the throne) should devolve 
on my contemptible person. I, knowing the feebleness of my 
virtue, at first felt afraid I should not be competent to the office ; 
but on reflecting that the sages, my ancestors, have left to posterity 
their plans ; that his late majesty has laid the duty on me — and 
heaven's throne should not be long vacant — ^I have done violence 
to my fedings, and forced myself to intermit a while my heartfelt 
grief> that I may with reverence obey the unalterable decree ; and 
on tiiie twenty-seventh eighth moon (3d October,) I purpose de- 
voutly to announce the event to heaven, to earth, to my ancestors, 
and to the gods of the land and the grain, and shall then sit 
down on the imperial throne; let the next year be the first of 
Taoukwang.'' 

Dr. Morrison says the title is rendered as follows: Taou is 
" eternal reason," tne Chinese use it for a good government, where 
reason, not passion, is predominant ; Kwang means light, lustre, 
glory, illustrious, &c. : so the title of the present Emperor may be 
rendered, " Reason's Glory,'' or '* Reason Illustrious." 

The present Emperor distinguished himself in the eighteenth 
year of his father's reign, when a plot was formed to destroy the 
monarch and subvert the government. He killed with his own 
hands two rebels who were scaling the palace-walls. The acts of 
the present Emperor have hitherto been passive, and he evidently 
endeavours to accommodate himself to circumstances. Whatever 
energy he possessed was very soon called into action by national 
calamities, and an effort on the part of the Mohammedans in Tur- 
kestan to throw off their allegiance. The Emperor despatched his 
prime minister, Chang-ling, at the head of an immense body of 
troops ; and the same instruments that his father and grandfather 
so successfully brought into the field of battle, viz. : silver and gold, 
suppressed the insurrection. 

The Emperor is fond of retirement, and takes little or nothing 
of the cares of state upon himself. 



OAI^AMITIES OF 7EE8BNT &BIGN. dS7 

In reriewmg the dynasties for several centnriesj ini bo on# 
reign has there been chronicled so many calamities and open 
insurrections (in ahnost every province of China Proper) as under 
the present sovereign. The numerous secret societies^ particularly 
the one called the " Triad/^ whose avowed object is the overthrow 
of the present dynasty, are a continual source of anxiety to the 
Emperor. 

The rebellion which broke out in Formosa, in 1832, was occa- 
sioned by the oppression of the local authorities. The number of 
troops slain, together with the mandarins, was very great ; its sup- 
pression was said to be accomplished in the usual way. 

A rebellicm on the eastward of Canton was carried on for several 
years, and was suppressed by bribes. 

The Emperor inherits his fetther^s well-known hostility to 
foreigners ; and his first act was to expel an European missiouary 
who assisted at the astronomical board, although for mare than 
200 years, two or more Europeans were attached to that tribunal. 

From all accounts, these constant changes of dynasties and fre- 
quent revolutions, have caused great deterioration in every respect 
in China. 

Le Compte, who travelled over a great portion of the empire as 
an officer of the government, and was an eye-witness to the scenes 
he describes, states, that avarice, ambition, and pleasure go a great 
way in their transactions. He asserts that they ooaen and cheat 
in traffic ; injustice reigns in sovereign courts ; the denre of getting 
torments them continually, and makes them discover a thousand 
ways of gaining. They are dexterous, laborious, and curious to 
find out the inventions and contrivances of other nations, end v^ry 
apt to imitate them. These vices and faults are the inevitable 
consequences in any country of a long career of official oppression 
and public tyranny. Le Compte observes, that, " in olden times, 
the Chinese were far more sincere, honest, and less corrupted, than 
at present j they were the wisest people of the universe: their 
moral principles, their political rules, and their maxims of good 
policy afford a marked distinction between the Chinese and other 
men. For 2000 years after their origin as a nation, the Chinese 
had the knowledge of the true God, and practised the most pure 
morality.^^ 

Th^ previous pages and the facts for subsequent examination, 
show how lamentably this vast empire has degen^ated. 

In the preceding details two facts are manifested : first, that the 
vast territory called China, has been an almost uninterrupted 
scene of contests, bloodshed, fraud, and struggles for mastery, 
either within the country, or from the nations on its borders; 
hei^ce China has no claim to be viewed as a peaceful ancient 
empire, held intact for many centuries under a ^'paternal " series 
of lawfidly succeeding rulers, who, by their seclusion from the 
western nations, maintained, as was alleged, uninterrupted peace, 



SW NO imtlFICAflOK MR BXGLTOtO!!. 

and ertabliflhed general prosperity. The 9ecmd is si eorolkrv firtom 
the irsti namely^^ that there is nothing whateter in the past history 
of China to justly the nations of western Europe in permitting the 
present Tartar chiefs (nsorpers of 200 years standing) to continue 
their arbitrary i^stem of exclusion ; a system adopted from selfish 
principles^ lest their own ill-gotten power should be shaken ; which 
has not even for its ayowed object the benefit of the millions over 
whom they harshly and despotically rule, and whom they would be 
unable to protect against any naral force, with which even Portugal 
might w^e war against China ] indeed, a single frigate might 
ravage the whole coast of this immense empire. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

EARLY INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND 

FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 



OwH of the points which it is desirable to investigate, relates 
to the idea that the Chinese have always been secluded from other 
portions of mankind, and that this seclusion has been the result 
of a studied policy. An examination of the following statements 
will decide the question. It is veiy probable, that some of the 
wandering companies of the Ten Tribes of Israel who lived under 
Hoshea, whose dispersion and captivity occurred b.c. 742 (chap. 
xvii., 2 Kings) found their way into China, in conformity with 
the decree, — "The Lord shall scatter thee among aH nations, 
from one end of the earth even unto|the other.'' (Deut. xxviii. 64.) 
If this be true, it will account for the partial resemblance of 
the Chinese moral maxims and customs to those of sacred Scrip- 
ture- The Jews, wherever they settled, doubtless inculcated 
the law of God, and "called it to mind among the nations 
whither the Lord their God had driven them.'' [Deut. xxx. 1.] 
As Salmanassar removed the Israelites into Media, b.c 721, 
there are strong reasons for believing that many of them in the 
process of time emigrated and settled in Bactria and Cara Cathia 
(Chinese Tartary). Their sacred learning mingled with idolatry, 
(for which crime they were scattered) 2 Kings, chap. xvii. 12, 
and Paganism probably formed some of the doctrines of the 
Scythkms, who are said to have laid the foundation of the Chi- 



CONPUCIUS PBJBDICT8 THB MS6SIAH. Sl89 

nese ^mpiFfii and as tbey only came to China a few genlsrations 
Wore the birth of Confociiis (their only correct historian and sage) 
he may have been indebted to the Jews solely for his primary 
instructions, and founded his prophecies an. those recorded by the 
Hebrews. In his Shoo-king^ after his appealing to ^^hang-te'^ 
the supreme ruler^ he treats of the terrestrial paradise^ its rirers^ 
waters of immortality^ fall of the angels and of man^ and the 
appearance at that moment of Mercy; also of the sabbatli^ con- 
fusion of tongues^ the manna in the wilderness^ the holy one 
in the west, who was incomprehensible and one with the Tien 
(Heaven) ; that the world, cannot know the Tien except by the 
holy one^ who only can offer a sacrifice acceptable to Shang-te^ 
the ^* supreme sovereign^' : that the nations are waiting for him 
like plants for a refreshing shower. The Tien is the holy one 
invisible^ and the holy one is the Tien made visible and teaching 
men. [^Higgms, Anacalypsis.'] Grosier states that the Chinese 
Jews who visited him declared that they honoured Confricius as 
a great lawgiver, and they asserted that the number of Jews 
who departed from Egypt was sixty thousand. Grosier adds 
that the Jews were noticed in China b.c. 206; they may have 
been there long previous in great numbers, and inculcated their 
habits. The few Chinese customs with wluch we are acq[uainted 
present a striking similarity to those of the Jews; in their nu- 
merous ceremonies, — ^new moons, and the number of their civil 
courts, their few capital punishments, life for life ; their patriar- 
chal government; tithes, and night watches (Judges vii. 19) 
eating the sacrificed offerings and making merry (Exodus xxix.) : 
phylactaries worked into their garments, and worn on their fore- 
head and left arms, (The Chinese edicts are so carried to this day.) 
The Jewish High Priest wore eight garments and a girdle ; could 
not marry a widow or divorced woman ; entered into the Sanctum 
Sanctorum once a year, was priest and lawgiver, and eould alone 
pray for the people : so also with the Chinese. 

In the year 536, b.c, and seventy years after the Jews had been 
driven eastward from their own country. King Cyrus published an 
edict throughout his empire, which then included all the kingdoms 
of the earth, declaring that all the people of the God of Heaven 
might return to the land of their fathers. Josephus says that 
many thousands of them continued to prefer the east for their 
residence. 

The successor of Cyrus, Cambyses, was adverse to the return of 
the Jews, and disputes arose between them and the Persians. An 
appeal was made to their new king, and Ahasuems commanded the 
edict of Cyrus to be brought from Ecbatana, and to be prodsumed 
anew from Ethiopia to India ; from this Josephus, and Qrasius, with 
other Christian writers, founded their belief that the Jews were 
scattered throughout the east. 

In thelibrfury oi the King of the French, there is a narrative of 



JMO JBW8 EAELY IN CHINA. 

traTdb in India and China, by two Mohammedana, who 
those countries in the years a.d. 850 and 877. An extract firom 
this interesting narrative on Canton proves the existence o{ many 
Jews in China at the period. 

In detailing the particulars of a si^e at Canfu (Canton), the 
writer states, that " besides the Chinese who were massacred upon 
this occasion, there perished 130,000 Mohammedans, Jews^ Chr^- 
tians, and Parsees, who were there on account of traffie. The 
number of the professors of those four religions who thus perished 
is exactly known, because the Chinese are extremely nice in the 
account they keep of them.^' 

The apparent vestiges of Judaism found in Tartary and China, 
led Manasseh, who is admitted to have been one of the most 
learned Jewish doctors, to adopt an opinion, that a part of the Ten 
Tribes settled in Tartary. 

Basnage maintains, " that the Ten Tribes retired to the East 
Indies and Chiua.^' He further states, " that the Jews were ac- 
quainted with these countries in the time of Solomon ; as this 
prince formed an alliance with the King of Tyre, and they sent 
their fleets to Ophir to obtain gold, ivory, and firankincense. [See 
1 Kings, chap, ix., 26 verse; chap, x.; 2nd Chronicles, chap. ix. 22.} 

Whether " Ophir ^' was on the peninsula of Malacca, contiguous 
to the China Sea, or at Sofala, on the east coast of Africa, is doubt-' 
ful. I visited Sofala in Her Majesty's vessels " Levan and Batra- 
oouta^' in 1824; and Malacca, in 1844, in Her Majesty's steamer, 
^^Spit^l;'^ my opinion is in favour of Malacca being the truer 
Ophir. There is a large mountain so named, contiguous to the 
coast at Malacca, and it abounds in gold. In sailing close along 
the shore at night, the air was perfumed as if with spices and franks 
incense. The whole country teema with rich and rare products. 
Sofala, cm the contrary, is a low, swampy territory ; no mountain 
is visible; gold-dust is certainly obtained there, brought from the 
interior, but there are no spices, frankincense, or myrrh. Its lati* 
tude prohibits the growth of those articles, while Malacca is spe* 
daily adapted for them. The transition of the Jews firom Malacca, 
up the coast, to China, was an easy matter : indeed, the Chinese 
themselves visited the Bed Sea and Persian Oulph. 

About the year a.d. 1150, the Babbi Benjamin of Tudela, 
visited several eastern countries, for the express purpose of aseer- 
taining the residence of the lost tribes. The rabbi found some of 
his brethren in Samarcand, CMna, and Tibet ; in the first city he 
found 50,000 Israelites. 

Peristal, an Italian Jew, who lived about two centuries ago, 
asserts that the Jews were at one time numerous and powerful in 
India and China, in the silk trade. 

Marco Polo, who held a high office in China, in the 12th ceU'* 
tury, makes frequent mention of the Jews and Christians. 

The Roman Catholic Missionaries, in the 1 7th century, diaeovered 



BAALT JBW8 IN CHINA. 241 

a synagogue of Jews, at Kaifung-foo, in the province of Honan. 
Father Oaeani took a copy of the inscriptions which were written 
on large tablets of marble in the synagogue. These Jews informed 
him that there was a Bible at Peking in the temple. (See diaptc^ 
ii., page 70, of this work.) 

All the information gleaned on the subject, may be seen in the 
18th volume of the ^^ Lettres Edificantes et Curieuses.'' 

The above statement is corroborated by the Rev. W. C. Milne^ 
in a letter from Ningpo in 1843 ; he says, ^' a Mohammedan priest, 
who visited me, brought with him a follower of the prophet. This 
stranger gave me very distinct information of a class of religionists 
in Kaiftingofoo, his native province. He says, ' they refrain from 
eating the sinew which shrank,, which is upon the hollow of the 
thigh,' (Gen. chap, xxxii., v. 82), and they do not touch the blood 
of animals. He recognised the Hebrew letters as those used in 
their Sacred Writings. See Grozier's China, Tom. iv. 

The learned Manasseh believed that the prophecy of Isaiah 
(chap, xlix., V. 12), clearly refers to this emigration of the dispersed 
tribes, and he applied the words of Isaiah, ''the people shaH return 
from the country of the Siniens,'' to Sinim. He fiiuirher observes, 
that it is not sxu^rising that the Ten Tribes should pass from 
Assyria into Tartary or China, when the distance was so short from 
the former to the latter countries. 

The land of Sinim is thus referred to in the Bible : — 

'' Behold, these shall come from far : and lo I these from the north 
and from the west ; and these from the land of Sinim," — 'Isaiah, 
chap. xHx., V. 12. 

In the Latin language, China is written Sinae and Sinenses, 
which approach as nearly to the Hebrew word Sinim, as the nature 
ci the Latin tongue allows. Marco Polo states that the Japanese 
in his time (1276 a.d.), called them " Cin," or Chin; and by this 
name are they called to this day by the Siamese and Cochin 
Chinese. In the Armenian history, a.d. 450, China is called Tsenia, 
and is said to be the land of silks. Ptolemy, a.d. 150, calls them 
Sinitis .- Aristotle heard of them through Alexander, by the name 
Thinae. 

Kathay, Cathay, and Kitai, was an appellation given to a* tribe 
of Tartars, who were in possession of the northern divisiion of China 
from a.d. 917 to 1126, they extended their conquests westward of 
Cashgar. This tribe was driven out of China by another Tartar 
tribe called Kin, and the Kin were attacked by the Mongols under 
Genghis Khan, (a.d. 1209). 

In the most ancient Persian and Arabian records, the Chinese 
are called Jin, Chin, and Sin; it is probable that these names are 
derived from the great family of Tsin, the first that consolidated 
and governed all China. 

The Arabian mariners thus describe 7%iana (China.) 

^* Meschantff from Arabia met others on the W. coast of India^ 

R 



242 ARABIAN AND OBBSK KNOWLEDGE OF CHINA. 

who came from the E. coast ; those on the E. coast traded to a 
country farther east^ called the Golden Chersonesis^ there was 
another voyage still eastward which terminated at Thiana, and 
Tkiana was bounded by the ocean/' 

The Macedonians were the first who brought the name Thina to 
Europe. Cosmos heard of the Chinese in Ceylon through Sopatros^ 
and he calls them Tzimstae. This title approaches Chinese as 
nearly as it can be expressed in Greek letters. The first notice of 
Thina (China) by the Greeks is the alleged treatise of Aristotle^ 
De Mundo. 

The map of Eratasthenes (b.c. 250) as recorded by Strabo, con- 
tained Thina at the extremity of the world, and bounded by the 
ocean ; it was placed in the parallel of Rhodes, in lat. 30^ N. 
This parallel passes through the present dominions of Chinaj and 
probably relates to the then capital. 

* Seres in Greek signifies worms/ hence the name of the nation 
from which silk came. Sinae was for this reason called Seres by 
the Greeks. 

Periplus states that the raw material and the fabric were 
conveyed by land through Bactria, to Berguza, i.e. Guzerat^ and 
by the Ganges to Limurike. 

Dionysius, who translated the works of Eratasthenes, thus de- 
scribes the silk as prepared by the Seres. The '^ flower*' referred 
to may be that of the cotton shrub, which was certainly known in 
China b.c 200. 

"Nor flocks, nor herds, the distant Beres tends j 
But from the flowers that in the desert bloom. 
Tinctured with every varying hue, they cull 
The glossy down, and card it for the loom.'^ 

Virgil supposed that the Seres carded their silk from leaves; and 
it will be seen at page 88, that a sort of silk is collected from leaves 
and trees, as deposited by an insect like a spider. Dr. Robertson 
observes that the Greeks very early imitated, and endeavoured 
to surpass, the sovereigns of Asia in magnificence ; and as silk 
was then prized above all other luxuries, and China being the 
only country then known to possess it, the position occupied by 
the Persians gave them an advantage over the merchants from the 
Arabian gulf, which they turned to their advantage, in all the 
marts of India, to which silk was brought by sea from the east. 
The caravans that supplied the Greeks with silk, had to travel by 
land to China, and pass through the northern provinces of Persia : 
so that Constantinople was entirely dependent on a rival power, 
for an article which ministered to their pride and luxury. 

Arian a.d. 186 after describing an island in the Indian Ocean, 
says: "still further on, towards the north, beyond the sea 
which bounds the country of the Sinae, is the great city Thinae, 
in the interior; from which raw and manufactured silks are 
brought to Barygaza by way of Bactria and the Ganges. Its 



ROMAN KNOWLEDGE OF CHINA. 9.4i3 

territories are said to extend to the remote sides of the Pontus and 
the Caspian sea. On the frontiers of Thinae, an annual &ir is 
held for the Sesatae (Tartars). 

Silk, which for several centuries was sold weight for weight 
with gold, became a great favourite with the Romans, but com- 
mercial intercourse was so frequently interrupted by the Parthians, 
(whose sway extended from the Caspian to that part of Tartary 
which borders on China) that a negotiation was set on foot by 
the Roman Emperor to establish a more secure trade. 

M. Bemusat, quoting jfrom a Chinese writer, says : ^^ the Kings of 
great Tsin (Roman empire) were always desirous of forming relations 
with the Chinese; but the people of A-se, who bartered their goods for 
those of the great Tsin, always took care to conceal the route and 
prevent a communication between the two empires, which did not 
take place till the reign of Hwan-te (a.d. 166) when the king of great 
Tsin, named An-tun (Antoninus) sent an embassy by Tonquin. Their 
cloths are better dyed and finer than those made to the east of the 
sea; they wished for the silk of the middle kingdom, which is 
the reason of their keeping up a trade with the A-se, and other 
neighbouring people/^ This native account coincides in every 
respect with the writings of the western historians. 

There appear to have been several points of similitude between 
the ancient Romans and the Chinese. Bayer and Paravey observe 
that the Chinese letters consisted of nine simple character, five of 
which were plain lines, and the other four were two or three joined 
together; which corresponds to the description of the Roman nu- 
merals. The Irish Ogham is undoubtedly the Scandinavian or 
Saxon Rune, and they are all identical with the Chinese. 

John Hoskins, Vice-President of the Royal Society, in 1686, 
shews that the Abacus was the same among the earliest Romans and 
Chinese, and exhibits drawings of each ; one stroke, or line, to 
make one, and a cross to count ten, X, and so on till one hundred. 
The Roman stove found in Chester, is similar to those in use in 
China at the present day (see page 96). 

The Armenian history and geography designates China under 
the title otZenia, which was characterized by the production of silk, 
the opulence of the natives, and by their love of peace above all 
the other nations of the earth. 

B.C. 25. In the reign of TVao-te, the Chinese had penetrated 
into all the kingdoms of western Tartary, except Ke-pin (Samar- 
cand), which had hitherto treated every propossd to become tribu- 
tary to China with contempt. During the previous reign the 
rulers of Samarcand tendered allegiance to the Chinese, but their 
sincerity was doubted. A deputation arrived this year (b.c. 25), 
with the same profession of attachment, but some secret motive 
influenced the government of China to refuse the proffer made, 
under the pretence that they did not wish to augment their distant 
dependencies. 

Ptolemy (a.d, 137) states, that merchants from India^ who were 

R 2 



%4A INTSftCOVRSB WITH CBNTEAL ASlA. 

joined by Oreeks from Cilicm, assembled for trade with tlie 8er^ 
(Chinese), at a place called ** the Stone Tower.'' From this tow« 
to the capital of the Seres was a journey of sevefi months. 

The Greeks and Romans, in prosecuting a trade with Chim^ 
must have traversed a great portion of the extensive countries to 
the east of the Caspian sea. 

Ptolemy gives a description of these inland and remote regions 
of Asia, The most distant part of the East to which his geographi- 
cal knowledge extended, he cidls *' Sera Metropolis^'' which bean 
the same position with Ean-cheou, a city in the province of 
Shen-se, and which is the most westerly province in China Proper. 
He places it in longitude 117^ 15". In this province reigned 
the Tsin Dynasty. His knowledge wits not confined to the cara- 
van road, as he writes concerning various nations towards the 
north, which, according to the position he gives them, points them 
out as parts of the great plains of Tartary, extending beyond Lassa 
and Tibet. The latitudes are fixed with such precision that hcf 
probably visited the places described. 

Intercoune must have been early established between the 
Chinese and the regions of Central Asia. 

B.C. 127* In the reign of Han-wao-te, Cha-keen was sent t0 
render assistance to a people called Yue-et^e (west of China). Afker 
a long joum^, he arrived at Ta-wan (Sogdiana), and from thence 
passed into Transoxiana, where he resided more than one yeftr. 
The report of his travels is as follows : Ta-wen is about 10,000 
le W. of Shen-se, to the N.E. Hes Oo-sun; to the E.,tEhoteit; 
the kingdom of Ta-hea is to the S.W. of Ta-waH. He saw at Ta-hea, 
cloths and other thiiigs similar to the productions of Chiiut, and 
they told him they came from the kingdom of Sluntoo (India). 
Shintoo is some thousand le S.E. of T&-hae. There axe three 
routes to Ta-hae ; one by the country of the Keangs ; the second 
more to the tiorth ; the third, which is the shortest and beHt, is 
through the country of Shoo.* 

A.D. 94. The Emperor Ho-te sent a general called Pan-chaou, 
to the shores of the Caspian Sea, In the former reigns of Ming 
and Chang, this general had extended the empire very much : he 
restored Cashgar to its former alliance, and conquered eight other 
kingdoms, He, at this period, passed the Snowy Mountains (N. of 
Cashgar), subdued the Kings df Tue-che and Koo^che (Bish-balikh), 
apd, by the submission of the states of Little Buchara, he was 
ePAbled to reach the shores of the " Sea of the North" (Caspian) ; 
from whence he sent the spoils of fifty kingdoms to the imperial 
court. His intentipn was to have gone across the sea to the king- 
dom of Ta-tsin (Roman empire), with which the Chinese had become 
acquainted by their cominercial transactions with it through Per-> 
sia f^nd Tartary. 7?he infonnatiop gained on this occasion is fully 

♦ Th« Tufff-hfin Kan^-mph, by MhUIbi vol. iii. 



SAINT THOMAS TH]B A?OdTL£ I^ CHINA. 34& 

itetfliled in Chinese history. He speaks of Min^ke^ Taw^Ie^ ud 
A^«e (said to be Bokhara or Bachara)* 

The intercourse that existed between China and various national 
previous and subsequent to the Christian era^ naturally leads to 
the conclusion that the ^^ land of Sinim '^ was visited by Christian 
missionaries at an early period; and an examination of the whole 
state of China leads to the conclusion that the inculcation of the 
divine pcecepts of our Bedeemer, shortly after their adoption in 
the west^ has probably been the means of preserving China from 
falling into barbarism, human sacrifices, &c., as was the c^ae with 
all the surrounding nations that did not become converts to 
Mahomfidnnism. 

The Rev. Mr. Medhur&t has shown it is a well ascertained fact, 
that St. Thomas the Apostle preached the Christian faith in India ; 
-and Assemannus tells us that he passed over to a coi^ntry on the 
east of India, where he preached the gospel, and founded a churph 
in the city of Cambala (Peking) ; i^er which be r^ume^ j^ 
Malabar. This is confirmed by the Chaldean rit^alj which pro- 
vides an office or ceremony for the celebration of St. Thomas, 
which says, that ^' by him the Persians, Hindoos, and Chinese were 
converted to the Christian faith.'' The early chronicles of China 
state that their conquests extend as far as Ta-tsin, which sigaifies 
Arabia and Judea; the date likewise corresponds with the dos^ pf 
the first century of this era. 

It was not only by land that the Chinese carried on intercoirae 
with distant countries ; their early knowledge of the compass was 
conveyed to Europe, and used by the navigators of the western 
world. 

Homer, speaking of the Phoeacians, as to their extraordinavy 
akill in maritime affairs, makes Alcinous give to the shipping of 
his island the same ecanmon character with Argos, and the ships 
Phrixus, in the following lines : 

'^ No pilot's aid Phosacian's vqssds need. 
Themselves, instinct with sense, securely speed i 
Endued witii wondrous skill, untaught they share. 
The purpose and the will of those they bear; 
To fertile realms and distant climates go, 
And where each realm and city lies they know; 
Swiftly they fly, and through the pathless sea, 
Though wrapt in clouds and darkness, find thmr v>ay.*^ 

Odysby, L. viii. 
It has been shewn in the previous chapter (page 194), that the 
Chinese daimed a knowledge of the mariners' compass at a very 
early period. 

The travels of a Chinese named Fo-Hian, in the fourth century, 
translated by MM. Bemusat and Klaproth, show that navigation 
was then carried on throughout the east, and that intercourse sub- 
sisted between China and India. Fo-Hian, with several com- 



246 MARITIME VOYAGES OF CHINESE. 

panions^ set out on his travels, a.d. 319, from Chang-an, in the 
province of Shen-se, and retnmed to Nanking, a.d. 414, being 
absent fifteen years. His narrative is chiefly occupied with 
details of Budhism; and having found a town, he calls To-mo-li-ti, 
a part of the Bay of Bengal, in which his religion flourished, he 
remained there two years transcribing manuscripts. 

FO'Hian states that he embarked from this place, with a large 
number of merchants, in a ship that would carry 200 people, and 
arrived at Sinhala (Ceylon) in fourteen days, the wind being 
favourable. 

He embarked from Ceylon in a merchant vessel of large dimen- 
sions, and well provisioned, for a long voyage across the Indian 
Ocean, and after a passage of ninety days arrived in Java. Having 
remained there for five months, he set sail for China ; and, at the 
end of sixty days, beiag short of water, the vessel bore up for the 
promontory of Lao, which is situated in the province of Shan-tung, 
and bears the same name to this day. 

This is not only confirmatory of intercourse, in a commercial 
point of view, but disproves the assertion of those who state that 
the Hindoos were never navigators. Fo-Hian found many Hindoos 
at Java. 

M. De Guignes says, "nous trouvons dans les annales Chi- 
naises des vii. et viii. siecles, une route par mer depuis la Chine 
jusqu' a Fembouchure de FEuphrate. Les vaisseaux partaient de 
Canton, ou les Arabes avaient un comptair tres considerable ; cette 
route est tres bien suivie jusqu'a Pile de Ceylon ; le temps que 
Ton emploie pour aller d^ un lieu a' Fautre est indiqu^ ; Ceylon 
dit on, est situ^ an midi du Tien-teo meridional, c^est k dire de 
I'Inde ; de-Ik en suivant la c6te occidentale on passait devant le 
pays de Molai ou de Malabar, ensuite vers le nord ou est on 
cotayait dix petits rayaumes, qui conduisoient aux frontiers occi- 
dentales du pays des Brahmes et Menu.^^ Littera xxxii. 

It may here be noted as a reason for the subsequent decadence 
of the Chinese in maritime commerce, that their distant navigation 
was materially checked, as was also that of other eastern nations, 
by the lawless and buccaneering conduct of the Portuguese, who, 
when paramount in the Indian Seas, were regardless of whom they 
plundered. 

The Chinese government, at a very early period, were well aware 
of the piratical propensities of the Dutch and Portuguese. The 
former were asked at one time, when the embassy visited Peking, 
had they " any land to live on ?'^ 

The Arabian traveller Ebn Wuahab (a.d. 877) points out the 
road taken at that time, in the voyage from Bussora to Canton ; he 
gives an account of the several islands he met with, and of their 
productions, and speaks of the manners and customs of the 
Chinese. He arrived at the capital of China with presents, and 
had an audience with the Emperor, who seemed to know all the 
sovereigns of the oriental countries, such as the Emperor of Constan- 



MABITIME ARABIAN INTERCOURSE. 247 

tinople^ and the Khaliff of Bagdad. In the Mediterranean on the 
coast of Syria, this traveller found the wreck of an Arabian vessel; 
the construction announced that it was of Siraph, in the gulph of 
Persia. He states, that all vessels built at Siraph, were put together 
in a particular way, without nails, which distinguished them from 
all other vessels. This Arabian marks the course the Chinese 
vessels steered from Canton to Bussora; they went from China 
to Ceylon, doubled Cape Comorin, ran down the coast of Malabar, 
passed the mouths of the Indus, and from thence to Siraph. The 
Chinese were wdl acquainted with the Euphrates. From Bussora 
the merchandize was dispersed among the Mohammedan countries, 
and to the coast of Africa. 

The account given by two Arabian merchants, who traded to 
China, a.d. 850 and 877, is as follows : the first traveller (a.d. 850) 
states, that the port of Canfoo was the principal resort of all the 
ships and goods of the Arabs, who then traded with China. That 
Canfoo (Kwanchoo-foo, i.e. Canton) is a large city built on a 
great river. The extortions of the Chinese authorities on the 
Arabian merchants, and the delay of their ships, is a subject of com- 
plaint. The charges amounted to thirty per cent, on the value of 
each commodity. Arabian merchants wishing to travel through 
the interior of China, were required to procure two passports, one 
from the governor, and the other from the lieutenant. The Ara- 
bians highly approved of this system, as a protection for many of 
their countrymen, who then traded with the interior of China, as 
these passports are registered throughout the whole frontier posts. 
And by this means, any but the proper owner is prevented being 
in possession of the property, as a most minute description is set 
forth ; so that, should death overtake the traveller, his property is 
carefully restored to his heirs. The Emperor of China appointed a 
Mohammedan judge over those of that religion, who then resided 
in Canton. The merchants of Irak, who then visited Canton, have 
reported favourably of his general conduct and decisions, as in 
every respect conformable to the Koran. The last Arabian, who 
visited China in 877 a.d. gives an account of a revolution that took 
place about this period, in the city of Canfoo, (Canton) on which 
occasion, there were massacred, one hundred and twenty thousand 
Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, and Parsees, who were quietly 
attending their business. The writer states, that their grievances 
increased, so that all the Arabian merchants returned in crowds to 
Siraph and Oman. 

The Arabs appear to have maintained and cultivated an extensive 
intercourse with China, from an early period. 

A.D. 708, in the reign of Walid, an embassy was sent to China 
with valuable presents ; vi& Cashgar. 

A.D. 635. The Chinese annals state, that during the reign of 
Taitsung, the second Emperor of the Tang dynasty, there came ani- 
bassadors from foreign nations. There arrived at the capital of 
China^ Singan-foo, a man of exalted virtue, named Olapun. The 



S4S CHRISTIAN iNTSRCOtTRSB IN THE OOtNTRT. 

Emperor graciously received this stmnger^ examined tlie na- 
ture of the new religion, (Scriptures ;) found that Olapnn wtm 
thoroughly acquainted with truth and uprightness, and gave him a 
special command to make it known. The following year this de- 
cree was issued, '' Truth hath not an unchanging name, nor are 
holy men confined to one nnchanging form. In every place 
true doctrine [has been given, and with reiterated instructions, 
the crowd of the living have been blessed. From the distant 
region of Ta-tsin,* (Arabia probably) the greatly virtuous CHapuu 
has brought the scriptures and the pictures, to offer them to our 
high court. If the intent of this doctrine be examined, it is pro- 
found, excellent, and pure. If its noble origin be considered, it 
produces that which is important. Its phraseology is without 
superfluous words. It holds the truth, but rdects that which is 
needless. It is benefical in all affairs and profitable to the -peorgie, 
and should therefore pervade the empire. Let the officers erect a 
temple for the religion of Ta-tsin in the capital, and appoint twenty- 
one ministers for its oversight.'* 

The discovery of a Syrian monument, commemorating the pro- 
gress of Christianity in China, which was erected a.d. 718, is a 
remarkable fact, in corroboration of the foregoing statement. This 
monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, a.d. 1626, 
near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of Shense, which 
was at a remote period the capital of the empire. This city is sit- 
uated on the river Wei, in lat. 34^ 1& N. The monument is 
described as a slab of marble, about ten feet long, and five broad ; 
it was covered with earth, but was instantly shown to the authorities^ 
and at this period, there were numerous Christian missionaries in 
China, who had an opportunity of examining it, together with 
Natives and Pagans. On one side of it is the Chinese inscription, 
in twenty- eight lines, twenty-six characters in each line, besides a 
heading, in nine characters ; the Syrian is on the right side, com- 
prised in seventeen characters, (see translation.) The nine Chinese 
characters, at the top of this monument, read thus ; a " Tablet 
recording the introduction of the religion of the Ta-tsin country 
into China.*' — (Ta-tsin, or Arabia and Judea.) It commences with 
stating the existence of the living and true God, — ^the Creation of 
the World, — the fall of man, — and the mission of Jesus Christ. 
The miraculous birth and excellent teaching of the Saviour, are 
briefly described. His Ascension is spoken of; the institution of 
baptisni, mentioned ; and the cross declared to be effectual for 
the salvation of all mankind. The latter part of the inscription 
states, that in the reign of Tang-tae-tsung, a.d. 636, a Christian 
teacher came from Ta-tsin, (supposed to be Arabia) to China; 
Fhere the Emperor, after examining his doctrines, published an 
434ict^ authorising the preaching of Christianity among the people, 

^Ta-tsin — "great purity." 



NESTORIAN^ ROMISH, AND ARMENIAN INTERCOURSE. %4Sjl 

A«D. 782. The Emperor Suh-tsimg founded several Christiaa 
churches 5 and to perpetuate his deeds^ this tablet was elected. 

In A.D. 780, Tiinothy, the Nestorian patriarch, sent Subchal? 
Jesus forth as a missionary, who is said to have laboured with 
great success in China and in Tartary. The Nestorian Christians 
appear to have held intercourse with, and to have been, more or 
less prosperous in China, from the 7th to the 13th century, — some 
say, to the 16th century, — ^when they were overcome by the 
Bomanists. But a discussion on this subject is reserved for an 
examination of the prospects of cliristianizing China, which will 
dose this work, 

A.D. 1246. Innocent IV. was the first Pope who conceived the 
idea of sending missionaries^ under the title of ambassadors, to the 
Tartar conquerors. Two Franciscan monks formed this embassy, 
and their object was to obtain aid from the Tartars to wrest the 
holy sepulchre from the infidels; but their shabby appearance 
(being bare-footed), and refrising to pay homage to ^'Heaven's 
Son/' and their not bringing any presents, caused their dismissal, 
with a letter to the Pope, telling him that " the Great Khan held 
rightfrd sway over the whole earth" 

A.D. 1254. Haitho, king of Armenia, visited the Emperor of 
China, in order to obtain a reduction of the amount of tribute 
which the Mongols compelled him to pay ; his visit was short, so 
that he had not much opportunity of seeing the country. The in- 
habitants he represents as most pompous and haughty. 

A.D. 1288. Nicholas lY. sent John De Monte Corvino to China 
to convert the Emperor to the religion of Home. The chief obsta- 
cle he met with was the Nestorians, who were very numerous ; but 
by ^eat perseverance he built a church at Cambsdu (Peking), bap- 
tized 6,000 person, and translated the Psalms and New Testament 
into the Mongolian language. He states that caravans arrived 
from India aud the shores of the Caspian, annually at the capital 
of China. The whole of Bokhara was at this time under the 
Mongol government. 

Oderic, a friar, visited China about this period, and without any 
difficulty travelled over a great portion of the empire, and from 
thence passed through Tibet. Here, he says, he was shocked at 
the custom which was prevalent of children eating the flesh of 
their deceased parents. 

The intercourse carried on by the Jesuits, in the 17th century, 
will be examined when discussing the rise, progress, and decline of 
Bomanism in China. 

A.D. 1330. IbnBatuta,a native of Tangiers, was sent toChina from 
the court of Delhi. He states that on his arrival at Calicut, on the 
Malabar coast, he found fifteen Chinese junks at anchor. Some of 
these junks had on board 600 sailors, and 400 soldiers. These 
vessels were worked by oars, and the superior officers had their 
wives and families with them, who lived in houses built on deck. 



260 SIMILARITY BETWEEN PERUVIANS AND CHINESE. 

This envoy was surprised at the good order which reigned in 
China. Paper money was in general use^ and the number and 
wealth of the Mohammedan merchants he met with, far exceeded 
his expectations. He returned vi& Sumatra. 

Marco Polo, in describing Koulam, now considered to be An- 
jengo, in (Tamul language it signifies tank or pool,) at his time a 
large city in India ; says, it is the residence of many Christians 
and Jews. He remarks that the heat of the climate is very snreat. 
yet merchants Tisit it from various parts of the world, such u the 
kingdom of China and Arabia, attracted by the great profits they 
obtain upon the merchandize brought there and taken away. It 
it now, however, a rare thing to see a Chinese vessel to the west- 
ward of the straits of Malacca and Sunda; although it is certain 
that in a remote period, the Chinese did, reciprocally with the 
Arabians, trade not only to the Peninsula of India, but also to the 
Persian Gulf. 

The authority of Edrisi, who wrote about the 12th century, (a.d. 
1166,) is direct to the purpose : — 

" Ex ipsa," he says of a port in Yemen, " solvuntur navigia 
Sindae, Indiae, et Sinarum, et ad ipsam deferuntur vasa SinicaJ' — 
(Geographia, page 25.) 

Edrisi further says, " Muskat, the ancient capital of Oman, was 
visited every year by great numbers of merchant-ships ; and was 
annually much frequented by ships from Sin/' (China.) 

There are probabilities that the Chinese also penetrated the 
Continent of America. The Peruvian annals state, that about the 
year 1100 or 1150 a.d., Manco Capac, with his wife and sister. 
Mama Ocella, appeared as strangers on the banks of the Titiaca, 
and announced themselves as '' children of the sun," sent by their 
beneficent parent to reclaim them from savage life. Manco in- 
structed the men in agriculture, and Mama taught the women to 
spin and weave. This might be rejected as a fable, if there were 
not a similarity in the institutions of the Peruvians and of the 
Chinese. The first injunction strictly enjoined was to " love one 
another." The preference was given to useful arts over warlike in- 
struments : their literary men ranked highest as poets and philo- 
sophers. 

The Emperor was considered the father of his people ; whose 
progenitor descended from Heaven. He was high-priest as well a9 
temporal prince. There was an annual ploughing match, in which 
the Incas took part. Irrigation, together with various composts 
for manure, characterized Peruvian husbandry. The taxes paid 
in kind, were maize, rice, silk, cotton, &c. Beads were constructed 
for general purposes, and houses of entertainment erected on them. 
Humboldt remarks on their mode of architecture as precisely simi- 
lar, and all of one model. The Peruvians were celebrated for their 
coarse pottery. 

In their dramas and spectacles; their suspension bridges made of 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA. 251 

Topes^ and chains made of twisted osiers ; rafts with a mast and sail 
made of mats; knotted cords for calculating time; monasteries and 
nunneries, there is a remarkable coincidence, demonstrative, at 
least, of intercourse between the Peruvians and the Chinese. 

As the subject is not confined to mere antiquarian interest, but 
may help to indicate our fiiture policy, some more detail will be 
useful. 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA. 

B.C. 126. The first authentic record of intercoio^e between 
India and China, was during the reign of the Emperor Wante, 
who sent an envoy to Tchang-kiao, with a retinue of 100 men, to 
visit the western countries, such as Khorassan and Meru-al-nahar. 
This envoy procured information about Persia ; and seeing rich 
articles of trade from India, his curiosity prompted him to visit 
that country. 

That there was a constant commercial intercourse between India, 
Ceylon, and China, about the beginning of the Christian era, is 
fully proved by Pliny, (lib. 60, cap. ccxx.) The same passage 
establishes the fact of a regular intercourse between the Roman 
and Chinese merchants. 

The above passage is thus translated by Salmasius : — '^ A certain 
King of Ceylon sent four ambassadors to the Emperor Claudius,'^ 
(this emperor ascended the throne, a.d. 44). 

'^ The chief of this embassy (Rachias) being asked if he knew the 
Seres (Chinese), answered that the Seres lived beyond the Hai- 
miada, or Snow Mountains ; with regard to Ceylon, that the Seres 
were often seen, or visited by his countrymen, and were well known 
to them through a commercial intercourse ; that his father had been 
there, and whenever caravans from Ceylon (and probably also from 
India) went there, the Seres came part of the way to meet them in 
a friendly manner; which it seems wa^ not the case with the 
caravans from the west, consisting of Roman merchants.^^ 

Thus we see that the inhabitants of Ceylon traded to China, at 
the commencement of our era, and it was by land that the inter- 
course was carried on. There can be no doubt that they went first 
by sea to the country of Magad'ha, the name given by the Chinese 
to all India. This kingdom of Magad^ha, in Anu-Gangam, is the 
province of South Bahar, called by the Chinese Makiato, the Arabs 
Mabid, or the Gangetic provinces, where Buddha was born, and his 
religion flourished. 

The traders from Ceylon, on arriving at Magad^ha, joined 
the caravans of that country, and went to China, through what 
Ptolemy calls the great route from Palebothra to China. 

It was by means of this commercial intercourse, that Budhism 
was introduced into China in a.d. 65 ; and from that era we may 
date the constant and regular intercourse between Magad^ha and 



26d ROUTE BSTWBBN INDIA AND CHINA. 

China; imtil the extirpation of the religion of Bnddlia^ and the 
invasion of the Mussulmans. 

A.D. 159. The Eling of Tientso (India)^ sent an embassy by sea 
to China, with many rare presents to the Emperor. 

[The Chinese call India, Shinto and Tientso.] 

A .D. 408. Yuegnai^ King of Kiaple (or the Ganges), sent ambas- 
sadors to China. 

A.D. 473. The King of Poali (Magad'ha), sent ambassadors to 
China. 

A.D. 641. The Indian king of the countries belonging to the 
great Mogul, and included in the Mo-kiato, or Magad'ha empire, 
sent an embassy to China. 

A.D. 642. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy in 
return to Houlomien. This Emperor had previously reduced all 
India under his yoke. 

A.D. 647. The Emperor of Magad'ha sent a second embassy to 
China^ and likewise the King of Nipolu (Nipal). 

A.D. 648. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy to 
the King of Magad^ha ; but in the mean time Houlomien £ed, 
and a ci^ war was raging. 

Ptolemy states that there were two roads by which the inhabit- 
ants of India and China communicated with each other ; one road 
led to Bactira., and the other to Palibothra. Merchandise was 
conveyed first to the west, through Balkh to Palibothra, and from 
the latter carried down the Gtmges, and by sea to Limyrica. 

From the metropolis of China, Ptolemy states there was a road 
leading to Cattigara, in the country of Cambodia^ in a south-west 
direction. 

With regard to the tracks from the country of the Magad'ha, 
and Palibothra, to China ; — from Cabul there was a road leading 
through the mountains, north of the Punjab, wMch met another 
from Jahora, in the same country^ at a place called Aris, in the 
mountains. These two roads are frequented to this day, and meet 
at a place called the Eyes of Mansarowar, where there are three 
lakes. Magasthenes gives the distance from the Indus to Pali- 
bothra as 20,000 stadia (1,476 British miles). 

On the authority of Chinese histoiy, it appears that there was 

constant intercourse between the kingdom of Magad'^ha and 

Chinaj and the trade to an island and kingdom called Founan, 

to the eastward of Siam, during the third and fourth centuries. 

This was probably a Malay kingdom. 

I The Mohammedan travellers who visited China in the ninth 

century^ and whose correct description of the country is not disputed, 

I thus write : ^' the kings of Mabed send every year ambassadors and 

presents to the Emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadors 

to them. Their country is of great extent, and when the ambas- 

I sadors from Mabed enter China, they are carefully watched, and 

never once allowed to survey the country, for fear they should form 



MOORISH IMT£RC0UE6C WITH CHINA* ^9 

Assigns of oonquering it^ because they are parted from China onlj 
by mountains and rocks ; which would be no difficult task/^ 

Father Semedo, giving a description of China^ in a.d. 1610, 
states^ that '^in the province of Xemsi, (now called Kangsoo) there 
is much merchandise, for it hath two cities in the borders thereof, 
Gauchew and Suchaw toward the west, from whence come numer- 
ous caitivans, of above a thousand in company, from several nations ; 
but for the most part Moors. With these caravans come ambas- 
sadors, which the princes of the Moors send to the king of China, 
making every three years a small embassy, and every five years a 
great one. These foreign caravans remain in the above cities, 
trafficking there with their merchandise. The embassy in the 
mean time depart to the Emperor with the presents &om the five 
kings, viz. : The kings of Rume, Arabia, Cabol, Samarkan, (Samiac- 
cand) and Turfon ; the first four know nothing of this embassy, but 
the fifth king names the ambassadors, and the merchants make up 
the presents between themselves; they remain three months at 
the Emperor^s expense/' 

It is probable that there is no inconsiderable trade still carried 
on with Central Asia from the western frontiers of China« 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN PERSIA AND CHINA. 

Sir William Jones translated an account of embassies and letteira 
that passed between the Emperor of China and Shahrokh, the ^ou 
of Timur. One of the annals of the Hidjerah, (year 811,) commenc- 
ing 26th of May, 1408, a.d., runs as follows : — 

" When the king (i.e. Shah Rokh Mirza) returned from his expe- 
dition to Scistan, ambassadors, who had been sent by the Emperor 
of China, to condole with him on the death of his father, arrived 
with a variety of presents, and represented what they had to say on 
the part of their monarch. The king after showing them many 
favours and civilities, gave them dismission. 

A.D. 1412. "Ambassadors from the Emperor of China and 
Machin, and all those countries, arrived at Herat. Hi3 majesty 
gave orders that the city and bazaars should be decorated, and that 
the merchants should adorn their shops with all possible art and 
elegance. The lords of the court also went to meet and welcome 
them. It was a time of rejoicing and gaiety. After which his 
majesty ascended the throne, and bestowed upon the chief of his 
lords and the ambassadors, the happiness of kissing his hand. The 
latter, after offering him their presents, delivered their message 
and the Emperor's letter.'* 

The following is a copy of the letter of the Emperor of China to 
Shahrokh ; it is in the usual arrogant style of a superior to an in- 
ferior : — 

• " The great Emperor, Day-ming, sends this letter to the co^mtry 
of Samarean, to Shahrokh Bahadur. 



264 INTEBC0UR8B BETWEEN PERSIA. AND CHINA. 

'^ Aa we consider that the most high God has created all things 
ia heaven and earthy to the end that all his creatures may be happy^ 
and that it is in consequence of his sovereign decree^ tliat we are 
become lord of the face of the earth, we therefore endeavour to exer^ 
cise rule in obedience to his commands^ and for this reason we 
make no partial distinctions between those that are near^ and those 
that are afar off^ but regard them all with an eye of equal bene- 
volence. We have heard before this that thou art a wise and ex- 
cellent prince^ highly distinguished above others^ that thou art 
obedient to the commands of the most high God, that thou art a 
father to thy people and to thy troops^ and art good and beneficent 
towards all; which has given us much satisfaction. But it was 
with singular pleasure that when we sent an embassy with Kimkhas 
and Torkos^ and a dress^ thou didst pay all due honour to our com- 
mands, and didst make a proper display of the favour thou hadst 
received^ insomuch that small and great rejoiced at it. Thou didst 
also forthwith dispatch an ambassador to do us homage^ and to 
present us the rarities, horses, and manufactures of that country : 
so that with the strictest regard to truth we can declare, that we 
have deemed thee worthy of praise and distinction. 

'^ The government of the Monguls was some time ago extinct, 
but thy father Timur Fuma was obedient to the commands of the 
most high God, and did homage to our great Emperor Tay-zuy, 
nor did he omit to send ambassadors with presents. He (the Em- 
peror) for that reason granted protection to the men of that country, 
and enriched them all. We have now seen that thou art a worthy 
follower of thy father, in his noble spirit, and in his measures ; we 
have therefore sent an embassy with congratulations and a dress, 
and Kimkhas and Tarkos, and that the truth may be known. We 
shall hereafter send persons whose office it will be to go and return 
euccesHvely, in order to keep open a free communication, that mer^ 
chants may trafp.c and carry on their business to their wish. This 
is what we make known to thee,'' 

Another letter was sent with the presents, and contained a par- 
ticular account of them ; besides, it served as a pass, which was to 
remain with the ambassadors. Each was written in the Persian 
language and character, as well as in the Turkish, the Mogul, and 
the Chinese characters. 

The embassy was most hospitably entertained, and one in return 
was sent to China, with a letter, in Arabic and in Persian j Shali- 
rokh being most anxious that the Emperor of China should regu^ 
late his conduct by the law of the Koran. 

A.D. 1417. The Emperor of China again sent ambassadors to 
his Majesty, attended by three hundred horse ; the embassy con- 
veyed an abundance of rarities and presents, and a letter from the 
Emperor of China with acknowledgments for past favours. The 
chief point in this letter particularly insisted on^ was that both 
parties should strive to remove all constraint arising from distance 



CHINA SOUGHT FREE INTERCOURSE. 255 

of place^ that tiie subjects and merchants of both kingdoms might 
enjoy a free and unrestrained intercourse with each other. The am- 
bassadors were handsomely entertained^ and as on all former occa- 
sions^ received their dismission^ when the king sent Ardasher 
Tavachy, back with them to China. 

About the end of Bamzan (Oct.^ 1419^ a.d.) the ambassadors 
Bimachin and jan-machin arrived at Herat^ from China^ with pre- 
sents and a letter for the king as follows : — 

^^The great Emperor Day-Ming sends this letter to Sultan 
Shahrokh. The Most High has made you knowings and wise^ and 
perfect. Your majesty is of an enhghtened mind^ skilful, accom- 
pUshed, and judicious, and superior to all the Islamites. The wes- 
tern country, which is the seat of Islamism, has been famous for 
producing wise and good men ; but none have been superior to 
your majesty. We send your Majesty some presents, which are of 
little value, only as tokens of our affection and regard. 

'' Henceforth, we hope that ambassadors and merchants, shall be 
always passing and repassing between tis unthout interruption, to the 
end that our subjects may live in plenty, ease, and security. This is 
what we have thought proper to write to you.^' 

It is obvious from the foregoing that the Chinese government 
sent out embassies with a view to the preservation of friendly and 
commercial intercourse with distant states. 

The letter from Shah Bokh, King of Herat, to the Emperor of 
China, a.d. 1408, has been translated from the Arabic, — thus: 
'^ There is no God but Ood, and Mohammed is his Apostle. 
Mohammed^ the Apostle of God, hath said, as long as ever there 
shall remain a people of mine, that are steady in keeping the com- 
mandments of God, the man that persecutes them shall not prosper, 
nor shall their enemy prevail against them, until the day of judg- 
ment. When the most high God proposed to create Adam, and his 
race, he said, ' I have been a treasure concealed, but I choose now 
to be known, — I therefore create human beings, that I may be 
known.' It is then evident, from hence, that the wisdom of the 
supreme Being, whose power is glorious, and whose word is sub- 
lime, in the creation of the human species, was this — that the 
knowledge of him, and of the true faith, might shine forth, and be 
propagated. For this purpose, also, he sent his Apostle to direct 
men in the way, and teach them the true religion, that it might.be 
exalted above all others, and the rites concerning clean and un- 
clean might be known. And he granted us the sublime and 
miraculous Koran, to silence the unbelievers, and cut short their 
tongues. The most high God, therefore, constrains us, by his past 
mercies and present bounties, to labour for the establishment of 
the rules of his righteous and indispensable law ; and commands 
us, under a sense of thankfulness to him, to administer justice and 
mercy to our subjects, in all cases, agreeably to the code and pre- 
cepts of Mustafa. He requires us also to found mosques, colleges. 



SM ALVXANOVm THB OEBAT AND THB CHINESE EMPEBOE. 

almihouaeSi and plaoes of wonhip, in all parts of our dominioiu^ 
that the study of the laws^ and the moral practices, which is the 
result of those studies^ may not be discontinued. Seeing then 
that the permanence of temporal prosperity, and of dominion in this 
lower world, depends on an adherence to truth and goodness, and 
on the extirpation of heathenism and infidelity from the earth, with 
a view to future retribution^ I cherish the hope that your Majesty, 
and the nobles of your realm, will unite with us in these matters, 
and join us in establishing the sacred law. I trust, also, that your 
Majesty will continue to send hither ambassadors, and express 
HMSsengers, and will strengthen the foundation of affection and 
firiendship, by keeping open a free communication between the two 
empires ; that travellers and merchants may pass to and fro, |.un- 
moksted, our subjects may be refreshed with the fruits of this 
eommezoe. Peace be to hmi that follows the right path, for God is 
ever gracious to them that serve him.'' 

A teonrkable interview took place between the Emperor of China 
and Alexandet the Great, an account of which has been translated 
from a Persian work by the late Sir John Malcolm. 

After Alexander haa made war against Paor or Porus, and slain 
him, he marched against theEmperor of China. That monarch did 
BOt eomsider himself equal to the conflict, and went in disguise to 
tibe Gseeian camp. He was discovered, and brought to Alexander, 
who asked him how he could act in such a manner. The Emperor 
t^lied : " I was anxious to see you, and your army ; I could have 
no fear on my own account, as I knew I was not an object of dread 
tO'Alexafluder ; besides, if he were to slay me, my subjects would in- 
stantly raise another king to the throne. But of this I can have 
no fear, as I am satisfied Alexander can never be displeased with 
an action tliat shows a solicitude to obtoin his friendsMp.'' 

The conqueror was completely overcome by this truly Chinese 
flattery, and concluded a treaty-by which China was spared on con- 
dition of paying tribute. The Emperor returned to his capital to 
make preparations for the entertainment of his great ally ; and the 
third day he returned with an army, the dust of which announced 
its great numbers, which made Alexand^ prepare his force ior 
battle. When both Unes were opposite, the Emperor of China, 
with his ministers and nobles, alighted and went towards the 
Grecian Prince, who asked him why he had broken {b^Sbl, " I 
wished/' said the Emperor, " to show the number of my army, 
that you might be satisfied I made peace from other motives than 
an inability to make war. It was from consulting the stars, that I 
have been led to submit. The Heavens aid you, and I war not 
with them." 

Alexander was so gratified, that he released the EmpM>r {rem 
paying tribute, as he was too wise, too pious, and too great a 
prince ; he wfs perfectly satisfied to have his friendship. 

The Emperor took his leave, and sent a present of jewds, gold, 



CHRONOLOGY OF FORBION INTEBCOIfiWS. SKIT 

laid beautiful ladies, to the conqueror. [From a Pernan wcKrk 
called Zeenut-ul Tuarikh.] 

We have no account of the extent of trade carried on between 
Persia and China; nor when the intercourse ceased. The mer« 
chandise brought from the kingdom of Magor^ and the city of 
Lahore, a.d. 1603, to China, consisted of salt, ammoniac, azure, 
fine linen, carpets, knives, &c« ; but the chief article was the stone 
called Yaca, (Jade) much prized in China, for making ornaments. 

The return cargo was porcelain, musk,Tubies, raw-silk, silk-stufib, 
rhubarb, &c. The presents &om Persia mentioned, consisted of 1333 
Italian pounds' weight of Yaca, 340 horses, 300 small-pointed dia-* 
monds, twelve catties of fine azure ; 600 knives, and as many files. 

The presents from the Emperor of China consisted of two pieces 
of cloth of gold for each horse ; thirty pieces of yellow silk, thirty 
pounds of cha, (tea,) ten of musk, and thirty pounds of silver. The 
value of the Persian presents was estimated at 7000 crowns. 
Those of the Chinese were valued by the Saracen merdianta at 
60,000. 

CHRONOLOGY OF FOREIGN INTERCOURSE. 

The accompanying record of foreign intercourse, and of foreigii 
missions to and from China, will prove that it ifi our own &alt 
China is not now open to a free intercourse with Europe. 

B.C. 1000. Foreign embassies to China from eight '' barbarous'' 
nations of India ; the nearest was ten days', and the most r^note, 
about six months' journey. Extracts from Chinese translations 
state that the Japanese traded about this time to China. 

B.c. 984. The Emperor Muh-wang, paid a visit to Mount 
Kwan lun, to see a western prince, called See-wang-moo. (See 
page 199, on Dynasties.) 

B.C. 141« The Emperor Woo-te, sent embassies to foreign 
countries to trade, from which they brought gems, pearls, gold, &c. 

B.C. 121. Wante sent an embassy and retinue of 100 persons to 
visit the western countries. 

B.C. 100. The Chinese chronicles record embassies from Japan, 
as they allege, with '^ tribute," i. e. presents. 

A.D. 159. The King of India sent an embassy to China, with 
rare presents. 

A.D. 166. A Roman embassy, from Marcus Antoninus to 
China. 

A.D. 176. India and other nations came to China by the 
southern sea, with '^ tribute." Canton was at this period the 
emporium for foreigners. 

A.D. 265. A Roman embassy to China. 

A.D. 285. Emperor Woo-te sent an ambassador to Lan-yu, 
Prince of Ta-wan, (between the Oxus and Taxartes, E. of Samar- 
cand), and conferred the title of king on him. 

s 



968 BMBAMIB8 fO AND WKQU CHINA. 

A.D. 287. Envoys received from tlie Roman provincea^ W. of 
Persia^ called great THn. 

A.D. 408. The King of Kiaple, (the Ganges,) sent an embassy 
to China. 

A.D. 478. The King of Pala, (Magadlia,) sent ambaasadoFS to 
China. 

A.D. 600. Daring the Suy dynasty, ambassadors were sent to 
the surrounding nations. Japan and China exchanged embassies, 
regularly. 

A.D. 641. The Indian King, under the Mogul, sent an ^nbassy 
to China. 

A.D. 642. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy to 
Houlomin. This Emperor had reduced all India to his sway, 

A.D. 647. The King of Magadha, and the King of Nipalu, 
(Nipal,) sent embassies to China. 

A.D. 648. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy in 
return to Magadha; but in the meantime, Houlomin died, and a 
civil war raged in his dominions. 

A.D. 795. A memorial to the Emperor of China, states, that 
the foreign trading ships had deserted Canton ; and now went to 
Cochin-China ; the memorial states, that a tenth of the value was 
the amount of the duty charged. The Emperor^s answer is, that 
the jetiMil must have been spoiled in its case; meaning thereby, that 
extortion had been used. 

A D. 1246. An embassy from the Pc^, vi& Bussia, ill received. 

A.D. 1253. An embassy from Louis the IX. (called St. Louis). 
Violent polemical discussions with the Mahommedans and Nesto- 
rians, caused this embassy to be dismissed, with this answer, '^ Crod 
haih given the scriptures to the Christians ; That holy book does not 
permit them to vilify each other ; nor for the sake of gain, to 
abandon the paths of justice : Go and practice its precepts.'' 

The Popes continued to keep up the intercourse by missions, 
which were begun by Pope Innocent. 

A.D. 1260. Two Venetian nobles, named Polo, visited China, 
with a cargo of merchandise ; they were well received by the Em- 
peror, Khublia^khan, who proposed sending back with them, an 
ambassador to the Pope, to induce His Holiness to send him Christ* 
ian instructors. The ambassador died on the journey. 

A.D. 1261. The great Khan sent embassies to Louis the IX., 
James of Arragon, Charles of Sicily, and other Christian princes, 
iuviting them to join his forces. 

AiD. 1276. The two Venetians, (Polo) returned to China, and^ 
were wjbU received^ They brought letters from Gregory X» The 
son, young Marco Polo, became the confidant of the Emperor, for 
seventeen years, in various ofiBces of trust. The father and uncle 
had sonae difficulty to get away fsom court. At length, the Khan 
sent them back by sea. Ambassadors from the Khan to the 
Pope travelled with them. 



FREE TRADE FOR FORETONBRS IN CHINA/ A-D. 1356. 259 

A.D. 1279. Letter sent from Kublia Khan, to the Emperor of 
Japan. 

A.D, 1286. Embassy sent from China to Japan. 
A.D. 1300. The Emperor, Yuen, sent an embassy to Japan, 
which was joined by an envoy, from the King of Carea, but no 
landing could be effected. This Emperor, and his successor, sent 
eight cfifferent embassies and envoys, some of them military expe- 
ditions in disguise, but they were all unsuccessful. 

A.D. 1323. Ibn Batuta, a pilgrim, left Tangiers about this 
time, and travelled over a great portion of Asia. On his arrival at 
Alexandria, Batuta visited a pious Imaum, who dispatched him on 
a mission to China, where he was well received, and was astonished 
at the good order and industry of the people of China. 
Paper money was in general use, in the way of trade. 
In all the large towns he found Mohammedans, who were 
wealthy merchants, and had their own officers and laws. 

A.D. 1356. The provinces of Foo-keen, Canton, Che-keong, 
and Chinchew, were opened to foreign ships ; and an additional 
officer appointed to Chinchew. All other ports were opened, on 
giving a bond as security against smuggling; the commanders 
were furnished with arms to defend themselves. An edict was 
issued, naming the articles to be bought from foreigners with wio(aey; 
and adding that any Chinese that would cheat foreigners, should 
be severely punished. 

A D. 1370. Embassy from the Ming dynasty. > t> i. t j- 

A.D. 1376. Embassy from Hung-wo. petween India 

A.D. 1400. Several reciprocal embassies. y ^^ uma. 

A.D. 1400. It was decreed by the Chinese, that foreign nations 
should bring ''tribute^' every three years; the regulations were 
strict, and 120 houses were built, and set apart for the sole use ■ 
of the foreigners. 

A.D. 1419. An ambassador was sent from China to Japan, to 
purchase some rarities ; he was badly treated, and narrowly es- 
caped with his life. 

A.D. 1420. An embassy, from Shah Bokh Mirza, from Herat, 
through Balkh and Samarcand ; this embassy being joined by 
others, on their journey, the whole number amounted to upwards 
of 800 persons, the greatest portion of whom were merchants. 
They were well and hospitably treated. 

A.D. 1420. An embassy sent fit>m Yung-loo. 
A.D. 1518. An embassy from Portugal obtained permission to 
settle at Sancian ; subsequently treated with the Chinese for Macao. 
A.D. 1539. The Japanese sent an ambassador to Ning-po, to 
conclude a treaty of peace and commerce. 

A.D. 1602. The Emperor of China sent an embassy to Manilla, 
to ascertain the truth of a report which had reached him, thai the 
port of Cavite was formed of gold. 

s2 



960 ALL CHlNXai PORTS OPXN TO ALL NATIONS^ A.D. 1686. 

Aa>« 1604. Another embasv^ from Cbina to the Spuiisli au- 
thoritiesy to know why 20^000 Chinese had been shun or banished 
frcHOOL ManiUa; the embassy was satisfied, and trade resumed its 
nsual course. 

A.D. 1624. The Dutch gained a settlement on the island of 
Pormosa, where the Chinese traded with them extensively. 

A.D. 1626. The Emperor (Tien-ki) ; and government called to 
their aid the Christian missionaries, and a number of Portuguese, 
in repellinff the Tartars ; their knowledge of artillery, and generous 
aid succeeded in driving away the enemy, who was withm seven 
leagues of Peking. The generals on this occasion were Christians. 
The mother of the Emperor, his chief wife, and his eldest son re- 
ceived the rite of Christian baptism, together with twenty ladies 
of rank at the court. The Chinese Empress was baptized Helena 
and the other royal Christians sent a learned missionary, Michael 
fiaym, (a Pole) to Pope Alexander, to render obedience to the 
coort of Bome. 

A.D. 1666. An embassy from the Dutch East India Company, 
endeavoured to obtain a monopoly of trade, without success; they 
were permitted to return with '' tribute,'^ every eight years* The 
embassy arrived at Peking, 17th July, 1666, and remained there 
ninety-one days. 

A.D. 1661. An embassy from Holland, to the Viceroy of Foo- 
keen province ; who presented them with a great variety of gifts 
in return, and silver plates with their names engraved tha!«on, 
which served as passes. 

A.D. 1666*67. A treaty between Holland and China, with per- 
mission to trade at Canton, Singchew, Hoksieu, Ningpo, and 
Hanksew, without limitation of goods, time, or number of ships. 
Stores and convenient dwelling-places were erected. Tne 
embassy arrived at Peking, 29th June, 1667, and remained there 
forty-six days. 

A.D. 1689. A treaty between China and Russia, by which the 
ktter was granted permission to send a caravan of merchandise, 
every year, to Peking ; and permission for a certain number of 
Russians to reside there. 

A.D. 1686. By an edict of the Emperor Kanghe, all the ports 
of China were opened, to every nation who chose to visit them for 
trade; they were all closed again in 1709. 

A.D. 1692. The Emperor Kanghe, issued an edict tolerating 
the Christian religion. This was in consequence of the great per- 
secution that the missionaries were subject to from the Mandarins; 
the report of the Board of Rites was most favourable to the cha- 
racter of all the Christians, then resident in China. The report 
states that the empire was indebted to them for the many and 
sincere efforts, which they had rendered during the dvU and 
foreign wars. Moreover, that the Europeans are tranquil; that 



EMBASSIES BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. 261 

they do not excite troubles in the provinces. Besides their doc- 
trine has nothing in common with the false and dangerous sects of 
the empire^ and their maxims do not lead people to sedition* 
About this period the Emperor Kan-ghi was given over by the 
Chinese physicians as incurable ; the Emperor sent for his great 
favorite Gerbillon, the Jesuit, who cured the Emperor with quinine. 
The Emperor, after his recovery, assigned the missionaries splendid 
apartments in the first enclosure in the palace, and had a church 
built within the palace, which was adorned by the Jesuit artists^* 
and opened with great ceremony, in March, 1702. 

A.D. 1692-^. Everard Isbrand Ides was sent on an embassy 
from Russia to Peking. After having delivered the Czar's cre- 
dentials, the ambassador was invited to eat with the Emperor, and 
to drink a cup of Tartarian wine, which was handed him by the 
Emperor. The embassy arrived at Peking, 5th November, 1692j 
and remained there 106 days. 

A.D. 1 712. An embassy was sent from Peking to A-yu-kee,Khan 
of the Tourgouth Tartars, situated on the banks of the Volga, to 
the north of the Caspian (it was sent in return for one from the 
Tourgouth Tartars, which had reached China the preceding year). 
The instructions given to the Chinese embassy on this occasion are 
curious and interesting. If any imtoward circumstance should 
lead the mission to Moscow, minute answers were given to the 
embassy to every enquiry that was expected to be asked relating 
to the government of China. *' If asked what the Chinese esteem 
most; reply, fidelity, filial piety, charity, justice, and sincerity, are 
esteemed above all other things: that on these principles we 
govern this great empire, and likewise ourselves. If the Russians 
speak to you about fire-arms, and solicit aid from me of that de- 
scription, state, that being on a mission to the Tourgouth Tartars, 
you could not broach that question. Again, the Russians are a 
vain people ; they will display several things they possess : on such 
occasions neither express admiration nor contempt. But, of all 
things, pay close attention to the manners of the inhabitants of 
Russia; its natural and artificial productions; its geography, and 
the general appearance of the country." Having been three years 
engaged on the mission, the embassy returned to Peking, escorted 
by the Russian guard, and the troops of A-yu-kee. 

A.D. 1715. The Czar, Peter the First, sent Laurence Lange as 
envoy to Kanghi, Emperor of China, who received him with un- 
usual attention ; dispensed with most of the ceremonies that are 
usually required, and called them his children ; at the same time 
strict watch was kept, and a sentinel placed on the door. The 
Emperor sent back with this embassy, two Chinese and two Tartar 
lords as ambassadors to Russia. 

A.D. 1720. This embassy from Peter the Great consisted of 
upwards of 100 persons ; nothing could exceed the attention and 
hospitality with which the embassy was treated. The Emperor 



262 RU88IAN MISSION ESTABLISH BD AT PEKIK. 

himself wrote a letter to Peter the Ghreat, the only instaaoe of such 
condescension on record. The secretary to this embassy remained 
in Peking, as a kind of agent to Peter the Great. The embassy 
arrived at Peking, 18th November, 1720, and remained there 114 
days. 

A.D. 1721. A legation from the Pope to the Emperor Kanghi^ 
to obtain his aid in settling a difference of opinion that existed 
between the Christians resi£ng in Chinay as to the Pope^s infidli^ 
bility. The embassy remained at Peking ninety*one days. 

A.D. 1728. A treaty entered into between Catherine the Firsts 
Empress of Russia, and China. According to this treaty, the 
Bussian mission, composed of six priests an4 four lay members, 
fixed its abode at Peking. A church was built by the aid of the 
Chinese government ; and the Russians were permitted to worship 
tiieir God according to the rites of their religion. The mission 
residing at Peking is changed for another set of priests and stu- 
dents every ten years to the present day. 

A.D. 1764. An embassy from Portugal to China ; it was chiefly 
conducted by the Roman Catholic Bishop and Priests of Macao. 
Two mandarins of high rank, — one a German Jesuit, the other a 
Tartar, were sent from Peking, to escort this embassy from Canton 
to Peking. Strange to say, the real object of this embassy was 
never weU understood. But a reduction of a few hundred pounds 
sterling was conceded to the Portuguese annually in Macao. They 
left Canton in February^ and returned in November. The embassy 
remained at Peking thirty-nine days. 

A.D. 1787. Embassy m>m China to the King of Ava; well re«- 
eeived, and returned with another embassy from the King of Ava to 
the Emperor of China. 

A.D. 1790, Embassy from the Emperor of China to the King of 
Ava. 

A.D. 1792. Lord Macartney was appointed ambassador to China 
by the British government and the East India Company. Hitherto 
Great Britain had been obliged to trade with China under the 
most disadvantageous circumstances. Fair competition was 
destroyed by the unjust and oppressive exactions of the Chinese 
officials at Canton. It became necessary to ascertain whether the 
frequent obstructions to trade arose from the policy of the imperial 
government, or were created by the corruption of the provincial 
administration, and the object was to obtain a remedy for the 
future. The legate who attended the ambassador was a Tartar; 
and the late success of the British arms in India had made an un- 
favourable impression on his mind, as it was hinted that the 
British had joined the Nepaulese in the war which had just taken 
place with the Tartars, on the borders of Thibet. The Emperor oi 
China sent a letter to the King of England, refusing to make any 
alteration in the then existing system, and further stated that the 



BBITISH BIIBASSIICS Ta CHINA. 3S3 

Bussiftns now only traded at Kiatcha, and had not for many years 
come to Peking^ Thus terminated the embassy, and all that can 
be said, is that the ambassador was received with politeness, 
treated with hospitality, watched with vigilance, and dismissed with 
civility. Great difficulty was experienced at this time to obtain 
permission for the king's ships to anchor at Anson's Bay, in order 
to have them convenient to accompany the annual homeward- 
bound fleet of merchant vessels. The local authorities .would not 
permit this publicly^ but they did not prevent provisions being 
supplied. The necessity of this convoy was fully proved in 1804, 
when Sir Nathaniel Dance beat off the French squadron under 
Admiral Linois, in the China Seas. The value of the homeward- 
bound fleet was estimated at upwards of ^£16,000,000 sterling. The 
embassy remained at Peking forty-seven days. 

A.D« 1795. A Dutch embassy remained thirty-five days at Pe- 
king. 

A.D. 1806. A Russian embassy to Peking. 
A«n. 1816. An embassy from the Prince . Eegent to the Em- 
peror of China embarked from Spithead^ with Ix)rd Amherst as 
ambassador, on board His Majesty's ship Alceste, on the 8th 
February, 1816. The objects of this embassy were similar to that 
of Lord Macartney, but more particularly to point out the many 
grievances under which the company were obliged to conduct their 
trade, and hoping that the Emperor would sanction some regula- 
tions that would exempt them from the capricious exactions of the 
local authorities. The instructions also hinted, that the time 
might probably arrive when coercive measures would be foimd in- 
dispensable to protect a trade in which some millions of money 
had been embarked. The course of policy pursued by the British 
nation in India was fnlly explained. The embassy arrived at the 
mouth of the White River, on the 28th July, but were delayed, 
waiting for the imperial legate, until the 9th August. The dis- 
cussion on the performance oithe Kowtow (knocking the head nine 
times against the ground) commenced, the Chinese insisting that 
the last ambassador had performed it. Lord Amherst refused. It 
is needless to recite the various consultations and. fruitless meet- 
kigs held between the legate and the embassy, together with the 
rude behaviour of the various officers of the court. The embassy 
were ordered to return home, without an interview. In a letter 
from the Emperor to the Prince Regent, was the following : ^^ I 
have sent these- ambassadors back to their own country, without 
pnnishing them for the high crime they have committed.^^ 

A.D. 1822. Embassy from the Emperor of China to the Eling of 
Ava, with some presents^ including a white male and female ass^ 
with bridles and saddles. 

A.D. 1823. King of Ava sends embassy to China. 

A.n. 1888. Exchanges of embassies between China and Ava; 



M4 CHINMS VLKQVhkTlOVB FOR FOBEION BMBA88IM. 

The following rules and regulations to be observed by embassies 
to tlie court of Peking^ are translated from a Chinese court-doca« 
ment, known as the Ta Tsing Hwtd tien. 

" The countries in the four quarters of the world, which send 
embassies to China^ and pay tribute, are Corea, Loochoo, Laoa^ 
Cochin China, Siam, Sulu, Holland, Burmah, and those of the 
Western Ocean; all other countries have only intercourse and 
commerce. 

'' When tribute-bearers arrive on the frontier, the local officers 
must report the same to the Emperor; and if the Emperor permits 
the embassy to proceed, the officer must fix their numbers, grant 
them gifts, proviae them with what is necessary, (and if any are 
sick show them compassionate charity) ; and an escort of offieers 
and soldiers to protect them. 

" The Chinese and foreign merchants are permitted to trade with 
each other in such things as they have, regard being had to the 
established prohibitions : compassion and charity mmt be shown 
to foreigners who are lost by shipwreck, and they must be sent 
away in safety. 

** Foreigners qf the western countries, who are skilkd in arts, or 
astronomy, and are wilUng to go and serve in Peking, must first be 
reported by the local officers at the place where tiiey arrive, and 
on getting a reply, they may be sent with a safe conductor to the 
capital. The following are the countries from which ambassadors 
have come with tribute to the court of Peking :-« 

" Corea. — ^Its tribute must be sent once in four years : the num- 
ber of the embassy allowed is, one ambassador, one deputy, a 
secretary, three interpreters, and twenty-four men to protect the 
tribute. The number of servants and others is not fixed, but the 
imperial bounties are only given to thirty of them. 

'' Loochoo. — ^This embassy comes by the way of Fookien, twice in 
three years. One ambassador, and one deputy ; the number of 
interpreters and servants is not fixed. 

^* Cochin China. — ^This embassy comes once in two years : there 
are two or three ambassadors ; the assistants may be from four to 
nine ; and the other servants, &c., may be ten or more* 

^' Laos. — This embassy comes by way of Yunnan : the period is 
ojice in ten years, and the number comjposing the embassy cannot 
exceed 100 ; and those who go to Pekmg cannot be more than 
twenty. 

^' Siam.- — ^This comes by Kwantung (Canton), once in three years : 
the ambassadors may be two, three, or four; the number who may 
go to Peking cannot exceed twenty-six. 

'' Suht. — Comes by way of Canton and Amoy, once in five or mors 
years; one ambassador, one deputy, one interpreter; but the 
number of followers is not fixed. 

' *■ Holland.^^1 he Dutch embassy comes by Canton : it has no fixed 
time* It may be composed of one or two ambassadors, one head- 



GREAT BRITAIN BECLARBD TRIBUTARY V» CttnTA. S65 

follower, one secretary j the other followers cannot be more than 
100, and those going to Peking cannot exceed twenty. 

" Burmah, — Comes by Ynnnan, once in ten years : they must not 
exceed 100, and those going to Peking cannot exceed 20/' 

The countries of the Western Ocean (Europe), Portugal, Italy, 
and England, have no fixed periods, each embassy cannot have 
more tlum three ships, each ship 100 men, and only twenty-two 
people are admitted to Peking. 

Among the other nations mentioned, are Japan, Acheen, France, 
and Sweden; the reason these countries have not brought "tribute'^ 
are not mentioned. Great Britain first brought " tribute " in the 
fifty-eighdi year of Kienlung, a.d. 1798, but no reasons for it are 
given. The reason assigned why Mr. Gushing, the American am* 
bassador, in 1844, should not proceed to Peking, was because the 
United States had *' never sent tribute/* 

It is the custom throughout the East, for an inferior always to 
tender some present or offering when approaching or visiting a 
superior; and this custom is specially observed in all embassies 
from one state to another. The Chinese have artfully turned the 
idea to their own glorification, by representing all " presents *' as 
^' tributes/* thus assuming a superiority for which there may not 
be the slightest foundation. Such is the reason why England i$ 
classed among the states " tributary** to China. 



CHAPTER IX. 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. DE- 
SCRIPTION OF JAPAN ; AND ABSTRACT NARRATIVES 
OP INTERCOURSE BETWEEN JAPAN AND ENGLAND, 
PORTUGAL, HOLLAND, RUSSIA, AND AMERICA. 



Thb whole of the circumstances connected with Japan are so sin- 
milar and so little understood, that I am induced to give here the 
Allowing report on Japan, which was laid before Her Majesty's Go* 
vernment in the hope of inducing an attempt to open a commer- 
cial intercourse with a numerous and extraordinanr people, whose 
country i» admirably situated, who enjoy a fine cUmttto, and are 
capable of carrying on a large trade^ not only with Europe^ but also 



206 •DUCBUPTION OP JAfANB8B< ItLANDS. 

with China, India, and the eastern hemisphere. Indeed, our re-es- 
tablishment of friendly relations with Japan, would be of great 
importance to our trade with China ; our cheap and rapid navigation 
would cnaolc us to become the carriers between the two empires, 
and thus feunlitate a social intercourse which would doubtlass be 
rautnally advantageous to all engaged in a pursuit so useful tx> tlie 
inhabitants of the vast regions under consideration. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF JAPAN. 

• 

The empire of Japan is comprised within 31^ and 46^ of north 
latitude, and 129° and 143° of longitude east from Gieenwidh. 

Japan is a kingdom or empire in itself, insularly sepaxiated fieom 
the rest of the world ; it is not unlike great Sritain, heme divided 
and biroken by forelands and arms of the sea ; with great bays and 
inlets, running, deep into the country, fonning several islands, 
peninsulas, gulfs, and noble harbours. 

The empire of Japan is divided into three separate islands, the 
largest of which is Nipfaon. This noble island is in length from 
soutb^west to north-east 1,300 Buisian miles, with a breadth vary* 
ing from 160 to 240 wrests, and running lengthwise from east to 
west in a winding form. The island is indented with deep bays 
and capacious havens, and has many small adjacoit islets. The 
English estimation is 700 miles long, by 86 broad, in the form of 
an elbow* 

Kewsew or Kiusin, the second island in extent, is separated from 
the south-western extremity of Niphon, by a narrow channel. The 
estimated length of the island is in English measurement, 200 
miles long, by 140 broad. It is compassed by a number of islands. 

Sikokf is the smallest of the three islands, and is situated south 
of Niphon and east of Kewsew, it lies contiguous to the other two 
islands ; this island is said to be 200 wrests in length, and nearly 
square in form. It is encompassed with an inconceivable number 
of small islands. The English estimate is ninety miles long, by 
fifty broad. 

The most remote southern island is Fatsisio, which is eighty 
leagues distant from the mainland of Japan. It is considered 
almost inaccessible ; it is viewed as a penal settlement for the 
grandees. The force of the ocean is most manifest on the south and 
south-wea^ coasts, particularly on the island of Kewsew or Kinsin, 
where Naugasaki is situate. In the year 1600 a.d. The Japanese 
wrested the two islands of Iki and Tsusseina from the Coreans. 
. Japan or Nipan signifies thefoimdation of the sun, being derived 
from M, fire or sun, and pan, the ground or foundation of a thing. 
It is also called Fmo-matto^fi the sun, and matto a root: 



FROVINCBS, DEPARTHEXfS^ AND l>l»NlUa»' *OV JAPAN. ^67 



GOVERNMENTAL DIVISIONS OF JAPAN. 

The empire of Japan is divided into eight provinces ; Gakinai^ 
Takai^ Tasan, Pookurooku, Sanin, Sanyo, Nankai, and Saikai. 
These are subdivided into sixty^ight depaxtment4S, which again 
consist of 622 districts. 

1st. GaMnai province consists of five departments, the whole of 
which are considered the domain of the empire, i. e., the Crown 
lands. The departments are, Yamasiro, Yamato, Kawatsi, Jelsumi, 
and Sidzeu. This province is situated nearly in the centre of the 
empire, in the southern part of Niphon ; the length is said to be 
180 Russian miles. This province contains the two chief dties of 
Japan, Osaka and Myako. The first is situated at the numt^h of the 
river Yado ; the second is the capital of the empire, and the rea- 
dence of the Dairi, or ecclesiastical Emperor. Myi^o is skuated 
on a branch of the river Yado ; its walls are said to be ten leagued 
in circuit. 

2nd. Takaiy the second province, is situated due west of Gakinai, 
and comprises fifteen departments, the whole of the south-easteni 
part of Nipan. The city of Jedo is the second capital of the empire, 
and is situated on a large plain at the gulf of Jedo in about 36^ 
north latitude. The Seogun, or Generalissimo of Japan resides 
at Jedo, the population of which is estimated at 700,000 ; the city 
is traversed by a river. 

3rd. Tasan province, is situated north of Takai, and consists of 
eight departments. It is the largest and most fruitful province, 
and includes the whole of the northern part of Niphon or Nipan. 

4th. Fookurooku province, comprehends seven departments, and 
is situated to the north-west of Gakinai, and eastward from the 
southern part of Tasan. 

5th. Sanin includes the northern part of the western extremity 
of Niphon, and is divided into eight departments. 

6th. Sanyo lies directly south of Sanin, and contains eight de« 
partments. 

7th. Nankai has six departments, which constitute the island of 
Sikakf : Awasi, and Kii, two islands situated due east of Sikakf, 
form the southern extremity of Niphon. 

8th. Saikai province comprehends the whole island of Kewsew, 
and is divided into nine departments. Firando and Nangasaki are 
situated in this province ; also Suzo, Buzen, Fizen, and Satsumi. 

Islands. — ^A short distance to the north of Niphon, lies the 
twenty-second Kurile island of Matsmai, this island is said to be 
1,400 Russian miles in circumference. To the north of Matsmai 
is the island of Sagalien, but of which only the southerly half 
belongs to Japan, and the other half is said to be Chinese. 



266 MOtJN'nLlKS AKTD BITKBS OF JAPAN. 

About two centuries ago, one of the Japanese princes bought 
from the natives of Matsmai, a portion of the south-west coast ; this 
was farmed out to merchants and fishermen in portions^ to the mu- 
tual advantage of both. These islands are called Matsmai^ Kunis- 
her^ Eetooroopj and Sagalem. They may be considered as colonies 
of Japan. 

When the Russians conquered the northern Kuriles^ and thus 
extended their possessions further to the south, the Japanese were 
80 alarmed lest their fishermen should be disturbed, that they con- 
quered the natives, but gave them many privileges, and did not 
interfere in their customs or religion. No fire-arms are permitted 
to the natives. Their chiefs - are confirmed by the Emperor after 
their election by the natives. 

When La Perouse visited these seas with his two frigates, the 
Japanese had no settlements on Sagalien ; but the Japanese and 
Chinese then took nominal possession of the island^ to prevent, if 
possible, any European coming there. 



ASPECT OF JAPAN. 

MotTNTAiks. — Japan is a very mountainous and hilly country. 
Niphon, the largest island, is traversed in nearly its own length by 
a ehain of almost uniform elevation ; in many parts the peaks are 
e<yf eried with perpetual snow. This chain divides the streams which 
flow to the south and east, and then fall into the Pacific Ocean ; 
from those which pursue a northerly course to the sea of Japan : 
the range is generallv firom north to south. The volcanic chain, 
the first links of whicn are found in the island of Formosa, extend 
through the Loochoo islands, to Japan, and from thenee run along 
the Kurile Archipelago, probably as far as Earatschatka. 

On the island of Kewsew, south-east from Nangasaki, is a ''high 
mountain of warm springs," which has several craters. Several of 
the volcanic mountains of Japan possess hot springs. Kampfer 
states, that shocks of earthquakes are not more regarded than a 
hail shower in Europe. 

Thb rivees of Japan are wide and very rapid in their course, 
which is occasioned by the steep mountains and rocks. The river 
Ujin, is one quarter of a German mile in breadth, that is one and a 
half imperial miles ; its rapidity is such that at low water, although 
knee deep, it requires five men to ford or guide a horse safely over. 
The men employed here to convey passengers across, are responsi- 
ble for the lives of those who pass the river. The river Oome is re- 
ported to have sprung up in one night, in the year b.c. 286. The 
river Akagova, is remarkable for the depth of its bed, wMch is 
perpetually varying. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THB KURILB ISLANDS. 1t69 

THE KURILE ISLANDS. 

Prom No. 1 to 21, Under Russia. 

The Kurile Islands. — Under this name are comprised a chain 
of islands which lie in the Eastern Ocean, between the south of 
Kamtschatka and Japan. The Russians gave them this name from 
the smoking volcanoes ; kurile, in the Russian language, signifying 
smoke. 

The number of these islands that are said to be under contribu^ 
tion to Russia, is twenty-one ; and the sea-room occupied by them 
from Lapatka to the island of Matsmai, is about 1,800 lUsissian 
yersts (three-fourths of an imperial mile). These islands were an* 
nexed to the Russian crown by mariners and fishermen j the first 
was taken possession of in 1713, and the remainder sux^cessiyely, 
up to A.D. 1779. 

No. 1. The nearest Kurile island to Kamtschatka is called 
Shoumtshu. The channel between Lapatka and thv9 Jsland^ is 
fifteen versts in breadth. The length of the island from N.E. to 
S.W., is fifty versts, and the breadth about thirty. It is a flat 
island with moderate ridges of hills, well watered throughout ; has 
a lake nearly in the centre, five versts in circuit. It is rich in 
minerals. But is chiefly visited for the sea otter and red fo^ with 
which it abounds ; its salmon is in much request. 

No. 2. The second island is called Foromushir; between which 
and the former island is a strait, two versts in breadths It lies 
from N.E. to S.W., and is twice as large as the first island; it is 
hilly^ and well watered; has no timber, but has valuable mines; it 
produces the red fox, weaves, sea otter, &c. 

No. 3. Shirinki ; the distance from the last-named island to 
this is computed to be twenty-six versts. It is remarkable for a 
bee-hive-shaped mountain of considerable altitude. This island is 
nearly as broad as it is long, say about forty versts in circumfer- 
ence; it abounds with sea-lions, and various marine animals, which 
are carried there by floating ice. The want of a safe anchorage 
prevents this island from being much frequented. 

No. 4. Makan Kur Assey Island lies sixty versts from the 
latter; and is in length twenty versts, and about ten in breadth. 
It is covered with brushwood^ is badly watered; but nourishes the 
red fox, and sea beavers ; and a large number of seals aare caught 
on it. 

No. 5. An&l^utan Island is situated thirty-five versts^ distance 
from the latter ; this island is in length 100 versts, and in breadth 
about fifteen. Three summits of mountains exhibit, themsdvesj 
which are exhausted craters. The red fox and sea beavers ar/9 
numerous. 

No. 6. Amakutan Island is not more than six versts from the 
latter ; is twenty versts in length, and ten in breadth ; produces 
foxes, and its shores abound with sea-lions and otters. 



270 RVMTAN KVRfLE ISLANDS. 

No, 7. Syaskutan Island is separated from the latter foil fifty 
yersts, and the current between them most rapid. Its length is 
eightjversts^ and only about five in breadth. Its productions are 
similar to the former island. 

No. 8. Ikarma is a volcano island, about twelve versts from the 
latter; and only eight versts in circumference. 

No. 9. Tshimkutan Island is thirty versts' distance from the 
former ; is round in form, and about fifteen versts in diameter. 
The coast is mountainous and rocky. 

No. 10. Mussyr Island is thirty-five versts from the ninth 
island ; and not more than three versts in diameter. Produces a 
lai^ quantity of wild fowl. 

No. 11. Rach-koke Island is 120 versts from the last-men- 
tioned, its length and breadth is about twenty versts. This island 
looks like a solitary mountain, shooting upwards from the sea. A 
continual burning of this island has filled up thirteen fathoms of 
water ; and converted a large place into shoals and banks. 

No. 12. Mutova Island is situated forty-five versts from the 
former, and is thirty versts long, and twenty-five broad. There 
is a volcano mountain to the south, which emits smoke ; to the 
north are several rich valleys and habitable plains. 100 of the 
inhabitants pay tribute to Russia. 

No. 18. Rassegu Island is forty versts' distance from the latter, 
and in extent about thirty versts every way. This island has 
several lofty mountains, rocky shores, and sandy bays. It is fiir- 
nished with excellent timber, nourishes sea-birds, beavers and 
seals. 

No. 14, Ussassyr Island lies seventeen versts from the former ; 
it is, properly speaking, two islands, lying close together, occu- 
pying a space of twenty-five versts each way. It abounds with 
rocks, clifls, and hot springs. The productions are similar to the 
latter. 

No. 15. Keoli Island is situated at a distance of thirty-six 
versts from the Island of Ussassyr; and is thirty versts in 
length, and only ten in breadth. This island has three mountains 
of considerable altitude. The white and black-bellied red fox, 
so much esteemed for his skin, is here found in abundance. 

No. 16. Semussyr Island is thirty versts' distance ftom the 
latter. The* extraordinary length of this island gives it a peculiar 
appearance to the mariner. Its length is ascertained to be ISO 
versts, and not more than ten in breadth. Four mountains are 
visible on this island, with evident traces of volcanic eruptions 
about them. The timber is excellent, and the various animals 
in request are numerous. The passage from this to the next 
island is upward of 200 versts in extent. 

No. 17. Tshirpo Oi, and two other adjacent isles, are estimiited, 
in length aiid breadth, about fifteen versts. A volcanib eruiHiiion nt 



JAPANESE KUBILE I8MN.D8. 271 

some period has corered these islaiids with stones, so that they are 
utterly useless* 

No« 18. Ourup Island is a respectable size, being fully 200 versts 
in length, and twenty in breadth. Its physical aspect is lofty 
mountains, and deep glens. On the northern side, lie four small 
isles, which produce good timber, and abundance of vegetables. 
Streams &om the mountains traverse the island and fall into the sea. 
This island is considered to be rich in minerals, but is only visited 
for the red and white fox, which are very numerous. 

No. 19. Etorpoo Island lies thirty versts distance from the fore- 
going; and is in extent either way, 800 versts. Several l<^y 
mountains adorn this island ; forests of noble timber, consisting 
of larch, pine, oak, &c. The other productions are black boars, 
sables, foxes, fish-otters, salmon, sturgeon, &c. In stormy weather, 
whales and dolphins are thrown on the shores The inhabitants 
are the genuine aborigines, or hairy Kuriles ; they eongregate into 
villages, and pay a nominal tribute to Russia. 

No. 20. Kunassyr Island is situated forty versts' distance from 
Eterpoo, its estimated length is 150 versts, by about fifty in breadtli, 
and is entirely surrounded with mountains and lofty sumfiatj$; on 
the centre of this island, are large tracts of low land, covered with 
good timber. The productions of the southern portion, are a great 
variety of vegetables, and fish. A pearl-bearing muscle as large 
as a dessert-plate, is found here, and the inhabitants sell large 
quantities to Japanese traders : tribute is also paid to Russia in 
this article. 

No. 21. Tshikota Island is distant seventy versts from the latter 
island. Its length is 120 versts, and the breadth about forty. The 
features are lofty mountains, fertile plains, and several lakes, which 
teem with excellent fish. At the southern extremity are ten petty 
isles, which are covered with good timber. The whole of the 
Russian islands are said to contain only 1400 inhabitants ; small- 
pox makes sad ravages. 

The Kurile islands under Japan. — ^Matsmai: — this island 
is called the twenty- second Kurile island, and is the largest of all 
the group, and nearest to Japan, being only about twenty-five 
versts distant from the Japanese dominions. 

On. the southern promontory stands the Japanese town of Mats- 
mai, at the extremity of the island, in latitude 41^ 82 north, and 
longitude 219^ 56^ east, extending along the margin of an open bay. 

The Japanese first purchased the privilege of hunting hxA fish- 
ing on this island^ from the natives, but finally conquered it in a.d. 
1652. The Japanese never would have annexed this island to the 
principality of Matsmai, until they discovered that the RassiaBs 
had taken possession of the northern Kurile, and by that means 
exten4^c] their power very far south. 

The. .^js^ ^e^j^ left the natives to their own choice of rejligion, 



ftn GOLD AKO 81LTBR IIINBS OF J1880. 

lawsy eiutomB, and dreM. Chiefs are elected by the natives^ and 
their appointment confirmed in Ji^an. The island is well guarded^ 
and several fortresses erected; the natives are prevented from car- 
rying fire-arms. The productions of this island^ particularly fish 
and timber, are all exchanged with Japan for summer clothing. 
The tribute is paid to the prince of Matsmai, who again pays it to 
the Emperor. 

JesMO. — ^This island, that perplexed the navigators and geogra- 
phers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to discover^ is the 
most northern ishind the Japanese possess out of their own king- 
dom« Jesso was conquered by Joritoma^ the first secular Emperor 
of Japan, who at his death bequeathed it to the prince of Matsmai. 
This island lies in 42^ of northern latitude, and approaches in 
form to that of an irregular triangle. Its estimated length from 
north to south is 800 mUes, and very little less in extreme breadth. 
The most southern portion lies in 217^ of east longitude. Jesso 
is washed on the west by the gulf of Tartary, on the east by the 
Northern Pacific Ocean; it is divided from Japan by the straits of 
Sangar, and separated firom Sagahlien island on the north by La 
Perouse's Channel, Two promontories, Sugaor and Taajasaki, run* 
ning far into the sea form a large gulf, which faces Japan, and 
reduces the distance from coast to coast between five and six Oer« 
man miles. 

Its whole circumference is indented by deep bays, which form 
good harbours. The best known to mariners, is Volcano Bay, 
towards the south-east, which is secure and spacious; Edermo, 
likewise, is a harbour well sheltered by the land. 

The aspect of the island, particularly the southern portion, is wild 
and mountainous. A rugged chain traverses it from north to south. 
Active and extinct volcanoes are visible. It is said to possess va- 
luable mines of gold and silver. 

The northern portion of Jesso possesses many advantages over 
the south. Edermo is a most fertile tract, and produces every- 
thing necessary to support life. The timber-forests consist of larch, 
oak, elm, birch, and the scented cypress, &c. Fish is most abun- 
dant, particularly salmon ; it is supposed that they are driven to 
the coast by the whales. Cured fish of several kinds is sent to 
Japan in large quantities. Bears are domesticated, and may be 
seen roaming about with fiocks of deer. 

The inhabitants are Japanese emigrants, and aborigines, which 
are called Ainans. The island is called Mazin, which signifies 
hairy, as the natives are literally covered with hair, like monkeys, 
according to Captain Sares. They are below the middle size, 
strong and swift, of a dark brown complexion, dark eyes, an agreea- 
ble physiognomy, and remarkable for placidity of disposition. 
Their summer-clothing is exchanged for their dried fish. The 
small-pox makes sad havoc among them. Number unknown. 

Uie dty of Jdiyako, in the province of Oakinai, the capital of the 



CITIES OF JEDO AND NANOA8AKI. ^78 

empire, is situated on the river Yodo^ in a large and well cnU^oted 
plain. Don Rodrigo visited this city about 200 years since. Its 
walls are ten leagues in circuit. The city is celebrated for a mag- 
nificent temple^ containing a bronze idol^ the dimensions of which 
may he estimated, when one man failed to grasp with his two arms 
the thumb of the right hand. There were 100,000 workmen em- 
ployed for years in building this temple. The population is cal- 
culated at 1,500,000, and it is considered the largest city in the 
world. The city of Jedo, the second capital of the empire, contains 
700,000 inhabitants, and is traversed by a considerable river, navi- 
gable by vessels of moderate size. The streets of Jedo are open, 
wide, and particularly clean, and closed at each end by a gate, 
which is guarded by soldiers. The houses are built of wood, and 
about two stories high generaUy. 

Nangasaki is situated in 88° 45' north latitude, and 127° 81' 30" 
longitude east of London. 

The population in 1826 amounted to 26,127, independent of the 
military force. Persons in the employment of the Siogun, and 
princes, priests, and monks, form, besides, a total of nearly six 
thousand souls. 

The city and its dependencies contain ninety-two streets; 
11,452 houses; sixty-two temples and Budhist cloisters, and a 
great religious edifice, besides five small chapels for the worship of 
Camis. 

It is the residence of a governor, who is relieved by his col- 
league, who represents the city of Jedo every other year; a super- 
intendent of the domains of the Siogun, a commandant, two 
mayors, a chamber of money placed over the foreign commerce, and 
a coUege of interpreters for the Dutch, the Chinese, and Coreans. 

The city contains two government palaces, those of the princes of 
Fizen and Tzikuzen, who furnish alternately the garrison for the 
port, the ofGices of charges d'affaires of the princes of Satsuma, 
Tsasima, and some other provinces of Knisin ; the Dutch factory, 
Chinese ditto, a prison for the insane, public magazine, an arsenal, 
a Funa-cura, or open yard, for the protection of ships of war, a 
botanic garden, several theatres, a vast number of tea houses, and 
other places of amusement, which are firequented by crowds of 
dancers and musicians. 

A brisk commerce is kept up, and great industry displayed ; 
there is an extensive porcelain manufactory, and breweries for 
making rice beer. The shops are numerous and well supplied ; as 
the city is the only link between Japan and foreign countries, it is 
confitantly visited by merchants, learned men, and idlers from all 
parts of the empire, and its port, filled with national vessels. 

There are numerous batteries from the islands and shores, to 
defend the entrance of the basin. The entrance itself is again de- 
fended by strong batteries, raised on the two sides, as well as by a 
considerable garrison. The passage is 458 metres in its greatest 



274 CLIMATE OF JAPAN. 

widths and 150 in the most narrow place ; a chain is always kept 
ready to bar it, if necessary. This disposition was kept a secret 
for a long time froijci the Dutch. 

Nangasaki is the most corrupt and least national city of the em- 
pire. It is described as having suffered by the infection of 
Chinese cunning and rapacity, and the coarseness of European 
sailors ; and it is further debased by throngs of the craftiest traders 
in Japan, who are naturally attracted to the only seat of foreign 
commerce. Even the language there is so interlarded with Chinese 
as to be well-nigh unintelligible to visitors from Nippon and Sikok. 
Fizeu principality, in which Nangasaki is situate, is a Inrge promon- 
tory, with 1,016 islands comprised within its limits. The revenues 
of the prince of Fizen are estimated at £857,000 per annum. The 
prince of Buzen (where the Dutch embark for Nippon) has 
jeiaO,000 a year. 

Nangasaki is the dearest market for purchasing the manufactures 
of Japan, although it is a manufacturing town. The country 
around it does not produce sufficient provisions to support the in- 
habitants ; they are chiefly supplied from the neighbouring pro- 
vinces of Fisen-figo, and the islands of Amakuso and Gotho, which 
lie to the north of the town. The land adjoining the town is prin- 
cipally planted with vegetables, and fruit. The market is well 
supplied with edibles of every kind that are in use in Europe ; 
venison is abundant and cheap, and endless varieties of fine fish, 
particularly crabs and oysters ; saki, or rice beer, is their principal 
drink. A noble river runs through the town, the water of which 
is excellent. 

The climate is declared to be healthy by all the Europeans who 
have visited Japan. In winter, the north and north-west winds are 
sharp, and bring with them frost, which remains a considerable 
time : snow is common in winter, even in the southern part of the 
empire. The summer heat is relieved by cool and refreshing sea- 
breezes ; rain falls more or less every month in the year, but most 
abundantly in the months of June and July. 

The greatest degree of heat for one year was, 96^ Fahrenheit, in 
August; the severest cold in January, 35°. In summer the 
southern sea-breezes are refreshing; at night and morning the 
wind blows from the eastward. 

Population, &c, — ^The number of inhabitants in all the Japanese 
Islands is estimated at 30,000,000 to 35,000,000, divided into eight 
classes. 

First, the princes, called dai-mio and sai-mio. 

Second, kie^nin, i. e. noblemen ; from this class are selected the 
ministers and great officers of state, governors, &c. They are sub- 
ject to many restrictions, and compelled to reside for stated periods 
at the capital, and keep up an expensive establishment quite 
beyond their income, in .order to prevent their becoming rich or 
powerful. 



POPULATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 2^5 

Third class are the priests of the three forms of religion tolerated^ 
viz. : Siutoo, Budhist, and Confucian. 

Fourth, the military, who are the vassals of the nobility, and 
hold their lands under tenure to supply a given number of txoop8 
to the Emperor. 

Fifth class, amongst these are inferior government officers, 
medical men, and all who are entitled to wear one sword and 
trousers. One class of men, which answer to the British sur- 
veyors or valuers, are so highly esteemed that they are permitted 
to wear two swords, the same as the nobility. 

The sixth class includes wealthy shopkeepers and merchants ; the 
most wealthy inhabitants of the empire, but held in great contempt 
by the princes and nobles, who, however, are frequently under 
many obligations to them in pecuniary matters. The instances 
are very rare of any member of this class being permitted to wear 
a sword, but under no circumstance are they allowed to wear 
trousers. 

Seventh class comprises all mechanics, poor shopkeepers, and 
artists. 

Eighth class consists of labourers and farmers, or more correctly 
speaking, the serfs of the nobility. 

Tanners, curriers, and every one connected with the leather 
trade, are outcasts from all classes ; this is supposed to arise from 
their Pythagorian belief, and Sintoo doctrine of defilement by 
coming in contact with death. Men of this calling are obliged to 
live in villages by themselves ; they are excluded from the popula- 
tion census, and when occasions require are compelled to act as 
executioners. 

Appearance of the Japanese. — Marco Polo stated truly, some 
centuries ago, that one China-man was the counterpart of anotber; 
but there is not that uniformity amongst the Japanese. The men, 
who are generally exposed to the sun, are a yellowish colour all 
over, muscular and well-made, active and free in their motions, 
middle size, not corpulent ; perfectly European, with the exception 
of the small lengthened Tartar eye — the only resemblance between 
them and the Chinese. Thunberg states, that ladies are perfectly 
white, with rather large heads and short necks. Their habili- 
ments have probably been 2000 years without undergoing any 
change in shape, and are uniform, from the king to the peasant, 
except in materials. Long wide gowns, one, two, or three, accord- 
ing to the season ; travellers and soldiers wear them short for con- 
venience, with a leathern belt round the body. The gown is 
rounded about the neck, and displays the bare bosom. Breeches, 
like a petticoat, sewed between the legs, and left open at the side 
for two-thirds of their length. An over-gown of ceremony. The 
silk for fineness, such as worn by the rich, far surpasses anything 
known in India or Europe. 

T 2 



276 CHARACTER AND CUSTOMS OF THE JAPANESE. 

Character qf the Japanese. — Doctcnr Ainslie^ who was resident 
at the Dutch fnctoiy in Japan, in 1814, thus states : '' The Japa- 
nese are a nervous, vigorous people, assimilated by their bodilv 
and mental powers much nearer to Europeans than Asiatics. 
These traits of vigorous intellect may be traced in the greater pro- 
gress they have^ made in the arts and sciences than the Chiliese, 
with whom they consider it a great disgrace to be compared. 

The Doctor's testimony agrees with former writers, who say they 
have the stillness of the Spaniards, eager of novelty, and warm 
in their attachments, open to strangers, and, excepting the restric- 
tions of their severe sumptuary laws, seem a people inclined to 
throw tlieroselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelli- 
gence. The Japanese, like the Chinese, have a great contempt 
and disregard for everything below their own standard of morals. 

Thunberg, a German physician, who remained several years in 
Japan, pourtrays the natives as frugal, ingenious, sober, just, and 
of a friendly disposition ; extremely curious and inquisitive con- 
cerning the manners and habits of other countries. But they 
are distnistful, superstitious, proud, and implacable in their resent- 
ments ; never forgiving an injury. This spirit of revenge arises 
from pride, and the lofty sense of honour by which they are distin- 
guished from all other Asiatics. In courtesy and submission to 
their superiors, few nations can be compared to them. Highway 
robbery is unknown. 

Captain Gordon states, " I never was in a country, the inhabit- 
ants of which conducted themselves with such propriety as Japan ; 
not only affable and polite towards us, but invariably so towards 
each other," 

The Japanese express themselves very strongly against the 
Chinese custom of immuring their females. The different classes 
of society visit each other as they do in Europe. Doctor Ainslie 
was at several entertainments, where ladies did the honors of the 
table. He says they are " a race of people remarkable for frankness 
of manner and disposition; for intelligent enquiry and freedom from 
prejudice ; they are in an advanced state of civilization, in a climate 
where European manufactures are almost a necessary comfort, and 
where long use has accustomed them to many of its luxuries." — 
Sir S. Raffles reports thus : — 

" The Japanese appear entirely free from any prejudice that 
would stand in the way of a free and unrestricted intercourse with 
Europeans; even their prejudices on the score of religion, of which 
such exaggerated accounts are reported by the Dutch, and of 
which, as is believed among the Japanese, the Dutch have- some- 
times availed themselves against their rivals in the early trade of 
Japan, are moderate and inoffensive." 

Ancient and modem unprejudiced travellers, all agree as to the 
politeness of every class, rich and poor. On ordinary occasions 



SIMILITUDE BETWEEN EGYPTIANS AND JAPANESE. 277 

of meeting, respect is shewn by bending the knee ; extraordinary 
deference is paid by kneeling on one kne^ and hqwing to the 
ground. The nobles are saluted by bending the knee until the 
fingers touch the ground. When the bowing and bending is over^ 
the health of their respective families is enquired after, the state of 
the weather, &c. The state-prisoner Golownin was highly amused 
when his guard was relieved, as compliments were lavished by the 
soldiers on each other before they exchanged places. 

Doctor Siebold, in comparing the Japanese with the Chinese, 
states that the former have never shewn the stiflFness of the latter 
in repulsing foreign improvements. Even at the present day their 
literary men, especially their physicians and naturalists, neglect 
no opportunity to instruct themselves in the European sciences, 
and study the Dutch language with great assiduity, in order to 
perfect their knowledge. 

Habits. Their domestic dwellings are very similar to those of 
the Coreans and Chinese; it does not appear that they are re- 
stricted in building their houses higher than one story, if their 
means will permit, as the natives of China and Corea are. The 
houses axe built of wood, and whether it is to guard against fire, 
or economy, there are no stoves ever seen in them. The floors 
are covered with mats, and in the houses of the rich with carpets. 
The decorations, of fancy papers and paintings, on the walls, have 
a fantastic appearance. Prom the looking-glass, to the fowl placed 
on the dinner-table, generally everything is gilded ; the feet and 
neck of the fowl always so. 

There is an apparent similitude in the temple-architecture of the 
Japanese and Egyptians. The greater portion of the Japanese 
temples are in the form of pyramids, some are graduated, and 
some otherwise, having a quadrangular basement with a door 
approached by steps. Many of them are built, as hhe Egyptian 
temples were, in the form of a cross. The temple of Boorobbo is 
pyramidical, having seven stages of ascent cut out of a conical hill, 
and crowned by a dome, which is surrounded by a triple circle of 
towers. This is supposed to be the model of the Tower of Babel. 
The base of this Japanese pyramid comprises nearly the same 
number of square feet as the pyramid of Giza, and like it the inte- 
rior passages and chambers are hewn out of the solid rock. A 
great number of Japan hieroglyphics are strictly Egyptian. For 
instance, the square, the knot, the orb, circle, semi-circle, the 
triple twisted cord, vase, syphon, the trident, the mason^s square, 
hand-barrow. The common opinion is that the builders of this 
temple came from the shores of the Red Sea. 

In science^, the Japanese are said to cultivate astronomy and 
medicine ; original works are published, and likewise translations 
from European works, on these branches. With regard to their 
researches in medicine, we have proofs, by the introduction of their 
system of acupuncture into Europe. The science of astronomy is 



278 ASTRONOMY^ MECHANISM^ AND FINE ARTS. 

bnraght ao fiur to per£Detion> that they no loi^^er have thw calendar 
imde up in China. They study all the European works that have 
been translated into the Dutch language. Their approval of 
London-made mathematical instruments^ over those made in other 
countries^ as frequently expressed by the interpreters to Captain 
Krusestem, of the Russian embassy^ is proof that they have mad^ 
some progress in that science. 

They divide the year into twelve moons or lunationSj and make 
an intercalation of one month in the 8rd, 6thj 9th^ 11th, 14thj 
17th^ and 19th year. They begin the new year with the first new 
moon, which appears after the first degree of Aquarius, and the 
whole year consists of 854 days. Golawnin states, ^' that they are 
well skilled in trigonometry and civil engineering ; their maps are 
venp' superior to those of the Chinese,^' 

The clock and time-piece mechanism, consists in a horizontal 
balance moving upon a pin forward and backward, with a weight 
on each side. Their clocks accurately mark the duration of day 
and night, by the approach or recession of the weights. 

Their almanack, among other things, has a table containing re- 
markable events, and the number of years that have elapsed since 
they took place; predictions regarding the weather, winds, and 
lucky days, &c. The latter must be strictly observed by every one 
who is about to engage in any iropoitant undertaking. 

Their taste for music extends to every class ; even the coolies, 
sailors, and watchmen, stimulate each other to equal exertion by a 
sort of song : the latter show their vigilance by beating two sticks, 
as a substitute for our rattles, in a similar manner to the watchmen 
in China. In working various metals, they surpass aU other coun- 
tries ; especially in the art of blending different metals, in a manner 
to resemble the finest enamel ; which is then formed into orna- 
ments worn about the person, as jewelry is in Europe. Wood- 
engraving is an ancient art amongst them, but they have recently 
• obtained a knowledge of engraving upon copper, which they will 
probably soon bring to perfection. Golownin, the Russian state- 
prisoner, being a seafaring man and probably unacquainted with 
mechanics, states, that they tormented him with questions, and 
perhaps hurt his national pride, by so often referring to London- 
made astronomical instruments, as superior to those in other 
countries. 

With regard to the proficiency of the Japanese in what is called 
the fine arts, there is a difiiculty in ascertaining their position. 
The Dutch authorities are not to be relied on in any thing relating 
to that country ; and tha capability of the Dutch to appreciate 
merit, is somewhat questionable. The German physicians who 
have resided at the Dutch factory, give the Japanese great credit 
for their unaided attainments. During Dr. Von Siebold's short 
residence in Japan, he was enabled to collect such a variety of 



GOVERNMENT^ EMPEROR^ ETC.^ OF JAPAN. 279 

.. : 

engravings^ and works of art^ that the Dutch authorities at the 
Hague^ gave him a large price for his museum. 

Oil painting is not well understood in Japan; but in wate^r 
colours nothing can be natural^ from the brilliancy of the tints 
imparted. 

Prints respecting campaigns, and sea battles^ are much prized, 
by all classes. Their lacker-ware, if an idea could be formed froi^ii 
the tedious process it undergoes according to Eempfer, ought to 
be beautiful. The specimens in the museum at the Hague^ are 
highly prized by good judges ; and yet they are not first-rate^ r4 
none are allowed to be carried out of the kingdom. Printing and 
bookselling are carried on to a great extent. 

In 1781 a Yedo bookseller published an Encyclopaedia (Kun seyo 
rut tmi) in 639 volumes, comprehending 1273 divisions. 

The work termed Ditsu foo ryak, consists of 1000 volumes^ and 
is the most extensive undertaking of the kind in Japan. 

The Government of Japan is monarchical and feudal. The 
ancient laws entrusted all power and authority to the '' Dcdri'* 
(High Priest), Mikado or Emperor. 

A.D. 1176. A check was placed over the power of the reigning 
Emperors, by nominating a second Emperor or Generalissimo, wot 
is called the " Seogun;'^ his authority extends to all civil and mili- 
tary affairs of the empire. The " Dairi" or celestial Emperor, is 
never consulted on any state affairs, except a declaration of war, or 
on negotiations with foreign powers. Even the soldiers who guard 
his palace and the royal province of Gokinai, are appointed and paid 
by the '^ Scoffun,^' 

The Seogun is assisted in his administration of the government, 
by a council and a senate. The council consists of five members, 
all of whom must be reigning princes, and the descendants of the 
principal supporters of ti^e usurper Jjegas. Their titles are here- 
ditary. The council decides all ordinary cases, without the appro- 
bation of the Seogun. In all cases of importance his consent must 
be obtained, and likewise that of the senate, before it becomes 
law. 

The senate decides all important civil and criminal cases ; and 
all others which are of importance must first be examined and de- 
cided by this body, before they can be sent before the council. 
These two branches of the government, form the legislative autho- 
rity of the whole empire. 

According to law, the Seogun must visit the Emperor once in 
seven years ; but embassies are frequent to and from each other ; 
and it is imperative at the new year, for the Seogun to send to the 
Emperor a white crane with a black head, taken with his own hand 
in hunting ; no business can release him &om this obligation. 

The princes are about 200 in number ; they are compelled to 
reside every other year in the capital, and to have a number of 



280 ADM1NISTRAT1VK BOAKDS AND FaiNCIPALITIEB. 

flolcUors ill constant readiness to move at the command of the Seo- 
gun. They have a qualified independence in their respective prin- 
cipalities. 

The public affairs of the empire arc administered by seven sepa- 
rate boards. These are presided oror b}* ministers^ the number 
attending each tribunal bemg regulated according to the importance 
of the business for deliberation. 

The first board takes charge of all taxes, which are generally paid 
in kind^ and amount to a tithe of the productions. Agriculture 
and manufactures^ are also under this board. The second tribimal 
superintends the navigation and coasting trade, on the rivers, 
canals, and throughout the interior. This board has nothing to 
do with the foreign commerce. The third board has charge of aU 
public buildings, temples^ fortresses^ &c. The fourth, the police, 
IS held in very great estimation, both by the nobles and people. 
The fifth decides criminal causes, according to the laws existing in 
each principality; but if they are in any way connected with the 
state, they are brought under this ciril and criminal board. The 
sivth, or military board, inquires into the number of troops in each 
principality, &c. The seventh, or religious board, is a check on the 
ecclesiastical Emperor (Datri) lest he infringe on the power of the 
Seoffun, 

Formerly there were sixtv-eight princes with hereditary princi- 
palities, but liable to forfeiture in case of treason. These sixty- 
eight have, from time to time, been subdivided, and portioned out 
into upwards of GOO separate administrations, called great and 
small principalities, lordships, and imperial cities. 

These princes are called kokushi, and are divided into two dasses: 
first, the daUmio, who hold their lands direct from the spiritual Em- 
peror, i.e. Mikado ; the second, sai-mio, who hold from the temporal 
Emperor, i.e. Seognn. These two grades govern in their separate 
principalities, with only the semblance of sovereignty. The govern- 
ment of each principality is solely conducted by two ofScers sent 
from the imperial council, called gokaro, with instructions from 
the council to guide them in their administration. One of these 
officers resides at the capital alternately, through whom the coun- 
cil issue their instructions; the family of the absent one must 
remain at the capital as a hostage, likewise the wife and family of 
the princes ; whose society they only enjoy dnring their compul- 
sory residence every six months at Jedo. But on no accoimt can 
the family or wife of a reigning prince ever reside with him in his 
principality. The consequence is, that the princes frequently re- 
sign in favour of their sons. 

Each principality is obliged to keep a standing army, in propor- 
tion to the extent of the possessions, and, likewise, to fiirnish a 
certain number of troops to guard the crown lands ; which troops 
are under the control and command of the temporal Emperor, or 
Seogun. 



PROYINCZAL AND LOCAL GOVBftNMBMV 09 4APAN. SSI 

Kagftsaki^ the only part for finreigneiray waft taken fr^m the 
Prince of Wizen, in 1634^ and concerted into an imperial city. Tke 
troops here are numerons; and are supported by the Prince of 
Fizen; the revenue horn the forekni trade beiatg divided between 
the governor and the inhabitants of the city. 

The Princrc of Satznma is the only oike that enjc^s any privi- 
leges.. His principality is situated on the southern portion of 
Kinsu. He is said to govern the Loochoo Islands, and some other 
adjoining ones* The only port to which the Loodioo^s can resort 
is in his territories : he unhesitatingly destroys any spies sent into 
his principality, and no notice is taken of it at Jedo,. The same 
policy is adopted in the small priacipalities and lordships; beside 
the security and precaution nhoro meutioiiied there are a vast 
number of secret q)ies employed^ some of whom are takea from 
the most humble, and others from the highest raink in life. 

The provinces and towns appropriated for the support of the 
imperial palaces, are ruled over by governi(»rs sent from the capital. 
Each province, or large town, has two governors, who rdieve eadi 
other, and leave their families as hostages at the capital. 

The government of Nagajsaki is the only one with which Euro- 
peans are acquainted, and it is probable that the same system of 
governing is adopted all over the empire. 

The governor of Nagasaki has subordinate to him two secre- 
taries, and an indefinite number of officers^ called gobanyosi (over^ 
seeing officers), each of whom has a separate depai^ment, for the 
strict regulation of which he is respbnsible ; under these officers, 
are a kind of police who execute the orders of the former. The 
fcdlowing officers are not subject to the governor's authority in any 
respect : the treasurer (who is second in raak to the governor), his 
deputy, and the military commandant^ who occupy the third rank ; 
the three latter are the government officers who are permitted to 
have their families with them. The number of spies on the privi- 
leged officers is unknown, but they are v^y numerous. 

Local Government of Japan. — ^Naga^i, one of the imperial 
cities of Japan, is governed by three governors; two being resident, 
and acting in concert ; but one Resides alternately every three 
months : the third is resident at the capital^ Jedo. These go- 
vernors, or lords, are caUed tono-sama; every two years, the senior 
governor is relieved by the third one, who is sent from Jedo* On 
his return to Jedo, he must give a written statement of every 
transaction that occurred during his government, and, likewise, a 
verbal statement. Here he is detained six months before he is 
sent to any other station; previous to^retiring, he must leave his 
wife and children as hostages for a considerable time. The salary 
is 2,000 kokfs of rice, valued about 10,000 taels o£ silver ; more 
than one-half of which he is oompelled to spend in presents to the 
chiefs and princes about the court. He is ako obliged to keep an 
establishment and appearance as the representative of royalty. 



282^ MUNICIPAL «OVBBNMlNT OF JATkV. 

There an two olaates of <^cer8, civil and military, who aid the 

Svemor in his daties; they are called Daorin and Joricks; the 
rmer is paid by the governor 50 taels ]per annum ; the latter, 100 
tads : they are nothi^ better than spies, as none of the nobles 
will accept the office. 

The KmperoT maintains a class of native interpreters (said to be 
in number 182), who understand the Dutch, Portuguese, Ton- 
qninese, Siamese, and Chinese languages. Kampfer mentions 
several others; and Dr. AinsUe says, English is studied. 

There is an imperial guard, who live in huts, that command the 
harbour; they should be 1000 strong, but do not exceed 800. 
There is another guard, called Funohan, that is, ship-guard. 
When a foreign vessel arrives, this guard is placed in boats on each 
side of the vessel, and, with regular relays of men, never leave 
that station until she is depar^g, when they convoy her out a 
considerable distance. 

' There is another guard of troops, who reside on a lull that com- 
mands the coast ; it is situated on the south end of the city : twenty 
is the stated number ; these are furnished with telescopes, and a 
quantity of fire combustibles. If a fleet of ships are seen, a fire is 
kindled, in a continuous line on each of the southern mountains, 
and, by this means, the news reaches Jedo in twenty-four hours 
(800 leagues' distance), which is otherwise a journey of several 
weeks. A similar contrivance exists on the coast of China,, by 
three coloured lights. 

The municipal duties of the city are conducted by a mayor, or 
yearly warden, called Ninban. 

AU civil and criminal cases are tried by the imperial tribunal ; 
witnesses and counsel are permitted : there is no appeal from their 
decision, but the death-warrant must proceed from the council of 
state at Jedo. 

A head-man (ottoma) is elected by the inhabitants of each street ; 
' he is confirmed in his appointment by the governor. He has the 
power of punishing for trivial crimes. His salary is one-tenth of 
the profit from the foreign trade. 

House and land owners form themselves into companies of five : 
one of the five is elderman, or alderman, and is accountable for the 
good conduct of the other four. Householders are not eligible, 
but they are free from taxes. 

There is a public notary (fisia), he is the ottomans (mayor's) 
clerk, and register of births, deaths, &c. He issues passports, &c. 

Treasurer (kaku) : every street has its treasurer, his duties are 
to disburse the money allowed from the profits of the foreign trade 
to each house-owner, &c. 

Every street has its messenger, who reports all removals and 
changes that take place in his street, &c*^ 

Previous to any of the foreign ships sailing, a muster-roll is 
called of tlie inhabitants, three times, the night befcH^e she sails. 



LOCAL AN0 GBKBRAL TAXES OF Jj/kPA3?. JffifB 

A census is taken in: the last month of the year^ and a Mst of all 
those able to bear arms sent to the Emperor. 

Any person wishing to purchase a honse in Nagasaki^ must ob- 
tain the consent of all the inhabitants of the street. There is a 
kind of stamp tax of about ten per cent, on the amount laid out ; 
six per cent, of which goes to the inhabitants^ and the remainder 
to a public dinner, to which the new comer is invited. 

All street combatants, if not immediately separated, involve their 
nearest neighbours in punishment, by causing their being shut up 
in their houses for three or six months; first permitting them to 
lay in a store of provisions that will last for the time. No fines 
or mulcts are recognised in Japan, lest the rich should violate 
the law. 

The Japanese are very lightly taxed : householders pay bo 
taxes, as they are not considered citizens, unless they own the 
house or land. 

The Emperor's ground-tax or rent is charged according to 
frontage (not the area), and seldom exceeds six mace for every 
kin (about two yards). There is a collection every year for the 
Emperor, which is voluntary. 

An inquest is held on the body of all persons before they are 
interred; the coroner is the head-man of the company of five, 
who must give a certificate that the death occurred from natural 
causes. 

It is saidy that on the second day of the new year, there is an 
annual trapapling on a brass cross, twelve inches long, represent- 
ing Christ and the Virgin Mary ; and that six days are employed 
in going round the city, as all must trample on the cross. 

Commercial Prospects. — ^A very extensive and lucrative trade 
'might be carried on with Japan. Sir Stamford Baffles said, " the 
climate, habits of the people, and their freedom from any preju- 
dices which would obstruct the operation of these natural causes, 
would open a vent for numerous articles of European comfort and 
luxury. The consumption of woollens and hardware might be 
rendered almost unlimited ; they are fond of the finer specimens of 
the glass manufacture, and it requires only to bring them ac- 
quainted with many other products of British industry to obtain 
for them a ready introduction.^' " To establish a British £%ctory in 
Japan, and furnish a population of not less than 25,000,000, with 
the manufactures of Great Britain, is in itself a grand national 
object/' 

In June, 1814, English ships were sent by Sir S. Baffles from 
Java to Japan, with instructions to open trade. Dr. Ainslie re- 
ported, that the " commercial objects of the voyage have been ac- 
complished ; arrangements entered into for securing ultimately the 
introduction of the English, and the doing away in a considerable 
degree the violent prejudices entertained against the English cha- 
racter in that quarter, where alone they could be assailed, and 



2M PB«DV€T8 kVB WANT« Q9 4APAlf. 



rottf^ tke people whose smtineotB on tliat suli^e^t axe likely to 
gain ground where it in of most importance they should prevadL'^ 

Captain Gordon states, as the xesult of his experience on visiting 
Japan in 1818, that *' the Japanese having no sheep, and woollen 
clothing being suitable during the winter throughout the whcrie 
empire, which may eoatsin &0^000,000 inhabitants, the demand 
for the staple articles would probably equal in quantity, though 
not in quality, that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland. With respect to cotton wool, piece goods, indigo, and 
amgw, he believed uiat Bengal would be inadequate to the supply. 
The mineral riches of Japan are such as to provide returns mo^ 
than sufficient for such immense imports/^ 

Mr. Gordon says, " the nation is fully sensible of the advantages 
to be derived from foreign trade, and are desirous of enjoying it.^^ 
" A moderatdy restricted intercourse with Jedo I regained as the 
foundation/' 

Among the products of Japan are com, wh^, silk, hemp, 
copper (of the purest quality), tea, wax, cinnabar, oil, borax, gao^ 
bc^, drugs, dyes, &c. 

The artides required, and in use by the Japanese, are stated 
tobe-^ 

I. WooUeHi of every description. " It is expected that a de* 
mand for them would be unlimited when once iuti)oduced.'' — [Sir 
S. Baffles.] They are partial to primary colours. 

2« Hardware : likely to be very extensive. 

3. Glass : fond of outclass of every description. Window and 
{date glass in demand. 

4. Carpeting, of different descriptions. 

6. Printed cottons, of fine texture and brightest patterns. 

6. Jronmanjfery; including tools of every description. Iron 
chests, tin plates, lead, stoves, door locks, &;c. 

7. Porcelainy of handsome patterns. 

8. Fire-arms, clocks, watches, &c. — Fire engines. 

9. Stationery ; leather, of bright colours. 

10. Laee, mock jewellery, &c. 

In April, 1841, the Dutch Government sent presents to the 
Emperor of Japan, who accepted them, and returned others of 
great value; an interchange which had not taken place for a long 
time. Among the presents sent by the Japanese Emperor was a 
magnificent set of chess-men made of solid gold, and enriched with 
precious gems. 

The report made states, '' favomrable news has arrived ; the Em^ 
peror a^eare strongly disposed to favour the Dutch,'* During our 
war with China> the usual number of junks was diminished from 
China, and the Japanese Government then gave permission to the 
Dutch to augment the number and size of their vessels. 

The Emperor, as a very flattering testimony of regard to the 
English, and as an imusual mark of favour, accepted the whole of 



sin a. RATFLBd' (^HNtOK DF JAPAN. 9IS& 

the presents sent by Sit Statofetd Ruffles in ldl4i, ei^de^ iht 
elephant^ which it was found impossible to transmit. 

The English niiissicti in 1814 bif^ke the ice; the interpai^rs 
4ind othars, who are aloM the ^laaindli of communication, have 
seen that the English afe loot the violent and intempfflnte charac^ 
ters they have been f^prestetred j and the reception of the mission, 
as far as liba*ality of sentiment^ manner, wad oonduct, was deci- 
dedly favourable to the British chai9tcter« 

Sir S. Raffles strongly expressed his opinion on the Irdvisability 
and facility of opening an intercourse with Japani and on lOth Se|^., 
1815,%ddreersed the foUowing remarks to aliteraxy socieiytt Java: — 

" With regard to Japan, I venture to submit the information as I 
received it from Dr. Ainslie. 

'^ In the first place, every information ilx9± has been received, tends 
to confirm the accuracy of Kempfbr's history of that celebrated and 
imperial island. The Japanese observe of him, that he is, in his 
history, ' the vwy apostle of their faith,' from whose works alone 
Uiey know even their own country. Their first enquiry was for a 
copy of Kempfer, and to evince the estimation in which the author 
was held by the Japanese, their observsttion was : ' That he had 
drawn out their heart from them, and laid it palpitating before us, 
with all the movements of their government, and the actions of 
their men.^ They are represented to be a vigorous nervous peo- 
ple, whose bodily and mental powers assimilate much nearer to 
those of Europe, than what is attributed to Asiatics in general. 
Theit features are masculine and perfectly European, with the ex- 
ception of the small lengthened Tartar eye, which almost univer- 
sally prevails, and is the o^ly feature of resemblance between them 
and the Chinese. The complexion is perfectly fair, and indeed 
blooming ; the women of the higher classes being equally fair with 
Europeans.'^ 

For a people who have had very few, if any, external aids, the 
Japanese cannot but rank high in the scale of dvilization. The 
traits of a vigorous mind are displayed in their proficiency in the 
sciences, and particularly in metaphysics and judicial astrology. 
The arts they practice s^ak for l^emselves, and are deservedly 
acknowledged to be in a nmch higher degree of perfection than 
among the Chinese, with whom they are so frequently confounded ; 
the latter have been stationary, at least as long as we have known 
them, whilst the slightest ittipulse seems sufficient to give deter- 
mination to the Japan character, which would progressively im- 
prove until it attained the same height of civilization with the Eu- 
ropeans. 

Nothing is So offensive to a Japanese, as to be compared in any one 
respect with the Chinese, and the only ocoa^on on which Dr. 
Ainslie saw the habitual politeness of a Japanese ever surprised 
into a burst of passion was, when upon a similitude of the two na- 



^266 JAPAMSSS DS8IES PORIUON INTBRCOURHS. 

tiona being unguaidedly aaserted, the Japaneae laid his hand upon 
hia sword. 

The people are said to hare a strong inclination to foreign inter- 
oovurse, notwithstanding the political institution to the contrary ; 
«nd perhaps the energy which characterises the Japanese-character 
cannot be better elucidated, than by that extraordinary decision 
•which excluded the world from their shores^ and confined within 
their own limits a people, who had before served as mercenaries 
throughout all Polynesia, and traded with all nations. There is by 
no means that uniformity among them which is observed in China, 
where the impression of the government may be said to have 
broken down all individuality, and left one Chinese thecountei^[»art 
of another. 

The women are not secluded, as in China ; they associate among 
themselves, like the ladies of Europe. 

During the residence of Dr. Amslie, frequent invitations and 
entertainments were given ; on these occasions, and, at one in 
particular, a lady from the court of Jedo is represented to have 
done the honours of the table, with an ease, elegance, and address, 
that would have graced a Parisian. 

The dress of a Japanese woman of rank, would cost as much, 
probably, as would supply the wardrobe of an European lady for 
twenty years. 

The Japanese, with an apparent coldness, like the stillness of the 
Spanish character, and derived nearly from the same causes — 
espionage and disunion, dictated by the principles of both govern- 
ments — ^are represented to be eager for novelty, and warm in their 
attachments, open to strangers, and, abating the restrictions of 
their political institutions, a people who seem. inclined to throw 
themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelligence. 

The mistaken idea of the illiberality of the Japanese in religious 
matters, was fully proved, and the late mission experienced the 
reverse. The story told by the Dutch, of trampling on the cross, 
is denied by them, and appears to be untrue. The massacre of 
Simvebarba is, by the Japanese, attributed to European (Dutch) 
intrigue ; indeed, it is admitted by Eempfer. 

The Japanese are not averse to the indulgence of social excess ; 
and, on these occasions, give a latitude to their speech which one 
woidd hardly suppose they dared to do in Japan. 

During Dr. Ainslie's residence, there arrived a large detach- 
ment of officers of rank, who had been out making a survey of the 
empire nearly four years, of which one-*fourth had not been com- 
pleted. 

The opinion of Dr. Ainslie is, that the Japanese are a people 
with whom the European world might hold intercourse without 
compromise of character; they are wonderfully inquisitive in all 
points of science, and possess a mind curious and anxious to. re- 
ceive information, no matter from whom. 



MINERALS AND AOftlCUtTURE (XF JAPAN, 287 

The natural productions of Japan are diamonds^ amber/iron, 
topaz, lead, tin, copper, gold, and silver ; good coal, lime, sulphur, 
saltpetre, salt, and various other minerals. Gold is found in seve- 
ral parts of the empire; some is washed out of golden sand; but 
the chief part is obtained from ore. Silver is found in the northern 
parts of Japan. The Japanese copper is considered the best in the 
world ; so, also, is the tin, which is fine and white. Brass is scarce, 
and consequently expensive. Iron is abundant and cheap. The 
Chinese were large purchasers in Japan of pearls and sea-shells, 
as there was no prohibition against fishing for them. 

Submarine plants, corals, &c., are found in the Japanese seas, 
not inferior to those found on the Spice Islands and Amboyna. 

The variety of the vegetable productions of Japan may be said 
to be infinite. The forest trees are oak, walnut, chesnut, maple, 
and fir ; also the midberry, varnish, paper, camphor, and every kind 
of fruit-tree, including lemon and orange trees. Hemp and cotton 
are cultivated ; also rice, corn, wheat, peas, pulse, potatoes, turnips, 
ginseng, ginger, melons, tobacco, and mustard. The agriculture 
is followed in every respect after the Chinese method. The laws 
and customs of Japan strictly enforce good cultivation ; and the 
owner leaving his ground uncultivated for more than one year, 
forfeits his title to possession. 

Buffaloes and oxen are kept for ploughing (not eating) only; 
Vorses for riding and carriages. Milk and butter are not used. 
They have no sheep nor goats, and of swine very few. There are 
no asses, mules, camels, nor elephants. Wild and tame fowls, such 
as are met with in Europe. The population live on fish and 
vegetables almost exclusively. 

Cordage and ropes are made from the bark of a wild-nettle, 
(Urtica Japbnica) which grows in Japan. When the nettle is 
pulled before it attains its full growth, the bark is said to be equal 
to Russian fiax. 

The substitute for soap is the powder of a wild bean, which 
is said to answer the purpose admirably. 

Lamps and candles are in general use ; the lamp-oil is pressed 
from mustard- seed. Their candles are about six inches long, and 
one inch thick ; the wick is formed of paper, twisted in a spiral 
form ; the oil from which they are made is extracted from the 
varnish tree ; they are of a whitish colour when first made, but soon 
turn yellow, and become offensive. 

In agriculture, the Japanese are not inferior to the Chinese. 
The soil in many provinces is naturally sterile, but no labour is 
spared ; it is plentifully manured, and the Chinese mode of irriga- 
tion adopted. The tenure on which it is held, compels them to lay 
it under heavy contribution. 

The rice produced in Japan is much superior to the Chinese ; 
barley and wheat are grown chiefly for feeding cattle. 

The Japanese gardeners excel in dwarfing trees, and enlarging 



88B EN0LI9B WHALt&8 IV lAPAN. 

▼egetaUes. Forest trees are stunted in their fvowth to three feet 
high, and radishes increased to fifty pounds weight ; those from 
ten to fifteen pounds are exposed for iale, and 'are said to be the 
Oldinary sise. 

Tea is snocessftilly cultivated in every district, and is the usual 
beverage with every class* . Oreen tea nosed in Japan, sold in the 
London awrket (30th November, 1841) at from nine shilllngSj to 
fi^^eight shillings per pound. 

The Japanese wheat which I saw was of excellent quality; it 
sold, at Hong Kong, at 2 dollars per pecul of 133^1bs. 

llie whale abounds on the Japanese coasts, and in the adjacent 
seas^ especially on the coasts of Ehumanoi, around the whole of 
Nipoui Tsupima, and Gatto, and at Omuza and Nomo. 

Mr. Enderby informs me that the English whale ships now visit 
Aniwa Bay, at the extreme point of Sagalien Island or Peninsula; 
the Japanese also visit this bay, in lacge numbers, to cure fish. 
Our whale ships frequently visit the coasts of Japan, but the people 
are prohibited by their government from trading with the strangers. 
Mr. Enderby says, that one of the cures adopted by our sulors 
for scurvy — namely, burying a man up to his neck in fresh earth, 
cannot be resorted to on the coasts of Japan, as the Japanese pro- 
hibit our people landing ; but the villagers bring off large casks 
full of earth for the seamen to be embedded in, and vegetables and 
water are freely supplied. Mr. Enderby has heard that some colo- 
nial whalers from Australia have landed on the coasts of Japan, 
plundered the villages and destroyed the temples; hence, he 
thinks, there is alarm and jealousy of our nation. 

Mr. King, in his report of the vOTsge of the " Morrison^' ship, to 
open, if possible^ intercourse with Japan, is also of opinion that an 
imfavourable opinion had been formed of the Americans frcmx 
the conduct of some American whale-ships on the coast. It is 
therefore advantageous, for the Japanese themselves, that these 
outrages should be punished and prevented for the future. 

Mines, — It is only within the last few centuries, that any of the 
natives would venture on a considerable island, yielding sulphur, 
because it occasionally smoked. However, one stout-hearted man 
ventured, with a guard of 50 others, to slay any demon that might 
interrupt their progress ; it is needless to say that none were found. 
Now, the Prince of Satzuma farms out the island, (called Sulphur 
Island,) for the sulphur alone, for 20 chests of silver per annum. 

The Emperor claims two-thirds of the produce of all the mines 
he permits to be worked; the lord of the province one-third. 
Laree quantities of gold are melted out of its own ore from the 
sand of the rivers, where it is found very pure. The best is found 
in Sado, a province in the Island of Nipon ; one catty yielded three 
taels of gold, (See "Weights, &c/^) The gold mines of Surunga are 
very productive. The most productive mines were in Satzuma, 



GOLD, SILVER, COPPER, TIN, AND PEARLS. — ^JAPAN. 289' 

one catty of ore yielded five taels of pure gold. These mines were ■ 
closed lest they should be emptied. 

Silver is found in the province of Bingo. But the copper of 
Suranga is considered the best in the world ; it is beautifully fine, 
and charged with gold, which the natives have lately learned to 
separate. 

The province of Salzuma produces a very pure species of copper, 
^vhich is refined and cast into a cylinder form, about a span and a 
half long, and as thick as a man's finger; it is made up in boxes of 
one pecul weight, (1251bs.) and sold to the Dutch for 12 mace the 
pecul j an inferior kind is made into round lumps, and sold at half 
the price. Brass is very scarce, and consequently much dearer 
than copper. Their tin is of a very pure quality, but little used. 

Iron is only found in three provinces, and is rather dearer than 
copper, so that the latter is substituted in all domestic utensOs, 
building junks, houses, and in making tools for husbandry. 

Agates, not unlike sapphires, are found in several provinces;" 
jaspers and cornelians are obtained in the mountains of Tsugar, in 
the northern extremities, nearly opposite Jedo. Pearls are found 
in a small oyster, (called akaja,) which are not unlike the Persian 
shell ; these pearls are much esteemed by the females of China, ' 
also by the Tonquinese. There is a .red earth obtained in some of 
the rivers, particularly in places where very little water runs ; it is 
called Naphtha, by the natives Abra : when set fire to, it emits 
a flame, and answers all the purposes of oil. Coals are abundant 
in the northern provinces. Siebold, in his journey to Jedo, a.d. 
1826, which was in winter, saw coal fires quite common; and pass- 
ing a mine where they were working, descended and satisfied him- 
self both as to quantity and quality ; it is of a bituminous nature, 
and is generally converted into charcoal. 

The Dutch imports, &om Batavia into Japan, are borax, cam- 
phor, baroos, cloves, cinnamon, coffee, elephants' teeth, lead, iron 
bars, glass-ware, looking-glasses, mace, musk, nutmegs, pepper, 
mirrors, rattans, quicksilver, raw-silk, saffron, sapan-wood, soft 
sugar, sugar-candy, tin, tortoiseshell, unicorn boms, Indian piece 
goods, cotton and silk piece goods, and woollen cloth. Their 
exports are copper, camphor, silk, lacker-ware, bees-wax, pitch, 
wheat, and various articles. Their policy is always to starve a 
market, and their intercourse being solely with Batavia, by means 
of a monopoly, there is no spirit of enterprise in their trade with 
Japan. The internal or coasting traffic of Japan is very active, 
and carried on chiefly by water, in boats of 60 tons burthen, and 
by land on the backs of horses or oxen. A pedestrian postal esta- 
blishment exists, as in China, for government letters only. 



u 



290 OOLDi SILVER, AND COTPEB COINS IN JAPAN. 

VALUES AND DUTIES ON THE FOREIGN TRADE AT 

NANGASAKI. 

The Dutch Company pay 15 per cent, on the amount of their 
imports into Japan, which is calculated at the price they sell for 
in Japan. The chief part of the Dutch cargoes from Batavia are 
farmed out to private merchants. These imports must have a 
separate manifest, and are charged with an additional duty, by the 
Japanese government, of 46 per cent, on all piece goods; goods 
sold by weight pay 70 per cent. The authorities give their reason 
for this heavy duty, thus : they say, private traders are at less ex- 
pense and no risk, compared to the Company, and can consequently 
afford to pay more than they. The Chinese are charged 60 per 
cent, also, and the reason aUeged is the short voyage, and their 
not being required to go to court. 

Total amount received from the foreign commerce, (called Fan- 
nagin,) 

60 per cent, on 20,000 taels, piece goods, 13,000 taels. 

Ditto on Chinese, 600,000 produce . 860,000 

Rent charged to the Chinese • . 16,000 
' Ditto to the Dutch .... 5,580 

Charges on Dutch oompan/s imports . 69,000 

Taels 453,680 
Japan Cubbenct.— The coins of Japan are various, being le- 
gally of gold, silver, and copper; accounts are kept in (no) taels, 
(momme) mace, and (bu) candareens, which have the same value as 
in China; the coins are cast, and gold and silver is weighed among 
merchants ; the only coins that have a standard value are the im- 
perial coinage, with the royal coat of arms, a flower and three leaves 
of the Kiri or Dryandra upon the face. The elliptical gold coins 
are two, the obang, and the kobang or kopang ; the first is as large 
as the palm of the hand, and as thick as an English farthing. The 
kobang, value of a tael of gold, and the tenth of an obang is two 
inches long, and one inch wide, and should weigh three mace, five 
candareens, or 208 grains troy. There is an old coin of this name 
but seldom met with, it is thicker and of finer metal. The old 
kobang weighs 275 grains troy, 22 carats fine ; the new kobang 
weighs 180 grains troy, 16 carats fine; the old kobang is worth 
448. and 7d., or 10 rix dollars ; the new kobang is worth 21s. and 
3d. or 6 rix dollars. The old Japanese coins are reckoned at 
Madras only 87 touch, which is 20i4 carats, and reduces the old 
kobang to 41«. and ICd. sterling. Of the smaller coins now in use, 
one is called ichi-bu, the Dutch call it golden bean, it is a fourth 
part of a kobang, should weigh 8f candareens, it has the imperial 
arms and Emperor^s reign. Another gold coin is called koisshiu, 
and is half the value of the former. 



BILLS OF EXCHANGE IN JAPAN. 291 

The fldlver moiiey^ nandio or nandrio gin, is of three sorts ; 
nibu gin is j a kobang, the nishiu gin is i of a kobang, and 
the ichibu gin is iV of a kobang ; it is a small coin not one inch 
long by |- inch broad, and as thick as a rupee. These are stamped 
stating their relative value, as two, eight, or sixteen to a tael or 
kobang, and are issued from the mint. The itagane, (or metallic 
slips), are made of gold and silver, of an oblong form, and when 
passed from hand receive a stamp as evidence of their purity. 
The kodama or pellets, like the itagane are stamped; neither 
bear the imperial arms ; if the schuit and itagane be the same 
weight of tlus coin ; and according to Dr. Kelly, 4 oz. 18 dwts. 
16 grains troy, and 4 oz. fineness it is worth 25^. and 3d. sterling. 

The coins of inferior metal, such as the Chinese cash, are called 
by the Japanese zeni; the smallest are reckoned as 6800 to a 
kobang, and are a base coin. The se-mon zeni, (so called because 
it is four times the value of the common sort,) is a good cast coin, 
of brass, and as large as a cent. 

Cash are strung on a string, each containing 1000, called Kwan ; 
a Kwan is worth 9 mace of silver; 120 cash a single mace; it ap- 
pears cash bears a higher value than in China, though inferior in 
weight. The same is the case in Cochin China, although the coin 
is still inferior. Bills of exchange seem to be as current in J^pan, 
as in China. Princes issue notes to circulate in their own prin- 
cipalities. The weights are the same as in China. The measures 
of length and of capacity, are of the same size and proportion as 
in China; the Japanese ri or mile, varies in length ; it is computed 
to be two-fifths of a Dutch league; four Chinese ri are about 
equal to one Japanese ri. 

The following account of gold in Japan, was taken from a Chinese 
book, written in 1708, and translated by Klaproth. 

The Japanese chroniclers state, that eolver was first presented to 
the Emperor a.d. 670. 

The discovery of copper took place 1366 years after the founda- 
tion of the empire, which agrees with 700 a.d. Copper previous to 
this period was imported; and the fact of the discovery seems 
evident by the name of the reign under which it fell^ Wa-do, 
which in Japanese signifies copper. 

Gold was discovered* a.d. 749, heretofore it also was imported. 

A.D. 1588. The first obang and kobang were coined, which are 
large oblong pieces of gold. 

A.D. 1608. The circulation of Chinese copper coin was prohibi- 
ted, and from this period to 1690 the coinage increased at an ex- 
tensive rate ; some years it is stated that 7,000,000 ounces of gold 
were coined, and 80,000,000 ounces of silver. The increase of 
foreign merchants and strangers^ was so great in the year 1623, 

* It ig probable that there are extensive gold and silver mines in Japan, which the 
skill and energy of Englishmen would soon develope. 

u2 



292 GOLD AND 8ILTBR SXPOKTBD TBOM JAPAN. 

that the government became alarmed ; and confined the trade to 
one port, vis. Nangasaki. Notwithstanding the extensive coin- 
age, the previous metals had become exceedingly scarce. It is 
said that large sums of money were taken from the new converts to 
Christianity in the hopes of releasing their souls and those of their 
ancestors from purgatory. 

The following statement of the export of gold and silver fix)m 
one port alone, at a period when only the Dutch and Chinese were 
permitted intercourse, will give some idea of what it must have 
been in former years, when the Portuguese, English, Dutch, and 
Chinese, were draining the empire. 

From 1646 to 1708, there were exported from Nangasaki 
2,397,600 kobangs of gold, valued at £5t is, 7d. ; the same period, 
87,420,900 crowns in silver. From 1663 to 1701 there were 
1,114,498,700 pounds in bars of copper. From 1609 to 1662, the 
quantity of copper exported was beyond calculation. 

The amount of gold exported from Nangasaki port alone, between 
1611 and 1647, and up to 1706, is estimated at 6,192,800 kobangs ; 
that of silver for the same period 112,268,700 crowns; and bars of 
pure copper, 2,228,997,500 pounds. 

From 1706 to a late period, 2,000,000 kobangs have been coined ; 
a third part of which has left the country, and out of one and a 
half million crowns coined, not one third remains in the empire. 

The following memorial was presented by a Japanese finance 
minister, to the government, in the year a.d. 1710. 

'^ A thousand years ago, gold, silver, and copper, were unknown in 
Japan, yet there was no want of necessaries. The earth was fertile, 
and this was the best wealth. Oangin was the first Prince who 
caused the mines to be diligently worked; and during his reign, so 
great a quantity of gold and silver was extracted from them, as no 
one could have formed any conception of; and since ihese metals 
resemble the bones of the ?mman body, inasmuch ad what is 
once extracted from the earth is not reproduced, if the mines con- 
tinue to be thus wrought, in less than a thousand years they will be 
exhausted. 

" Since these metals were discovered, the heart of man has become 
more and more depraved. With the exception of medicines, we 
can dispense with every thing that is brought to us from abroad. 
The stuff and other things are no real benefit to us. If we squan- 
der our treasures in this manner, what shall we subsist upon? 
Let each of Oangin's successors reflect upon this matter, and the 
wealth of Japan will last as long as the heavens and the earth.^' 

It is remarkable that the fear of the '' oozing out'' of the precious 
metals, equally pervades China and Japan, in their intercourse with 
foreigners ; but the same idea, to some extent, pervades most of 
the nations of Europe. 



EMPEROR OF JAPAN R£C;EIV£S WM. ADAMS A.D. 1600. 293 



EARLY EUROPEAN INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN. 

William Adams^ bom at Jellingham^ in Kent^ engaged himself as 
pilot of a fleet which the Dutch India Company were sending out 
from Holland in 1598 a.d. In the South Sea the fleet encountered 
severe storms^ and were driven southward as fiBU* as 54^. After 
crossing the line^ the ships kept company until February^ 1600 ; 
when^ being in latitude 28^ N.^ they were separated by a furious 
storm. 

A.D. 1600. The 20th April Adams's ship made the coast of 
Japan^ in latitude 30|-°, There were only six of the crew (twenty- 
four in number) that could work the ship. The ship anchored at 
the port of Bingo^ the natives oflering no resistance. The third 
day after their arrival, a Jesuit came on board, and acted as inter- 
preter. The king of Bingo gave them a house to reside in, and 
every attention was paid to the sick crew. The emperor, hearing 
of their arrival, sent for Adams, who repaired to his coiirt eighty 
leagues distant. The first question asked by the Emperor was as 
to the state of Europe with regard to peace or war ; a variety of 
other questions were also put, all of which Adams answered to the 
apparent satisfaction of the Emperor : however, he was committed 
to dose custody, but treated with kindness. In three days' time 
he was again brought before the Emperor, and asked the reason of 
their coming so long a journey ; Adams answering it was to ex- 
change the commodities of their country with others, and thus 
cultivate friendship with all nations, he was again sent to prison 
for thirty-nine days, during which time the Spanish and Portu- 
guese were using their utmost influence to have the crew executed. 
But on the forty-first day, the Emperor released Adams, and sent 
him to rejoin his crew ; telling the Spanish and Portuguese that 
the Dutch as yet had done no harm, either to himself or to any of his 
land ; therefore it was contrary to reason and justice to put such 
of their nation as had come to Japan to death. If the Spanish 
and Dutch were at war, that was no reason why he should slaugh- 
ter the crew. In the meantime, the Dutch ship had been con- 
veyed as near as possible to where the Emperor resided, but had 
been plundered of her cargo. When this was made known to the 
Emperor, he ordered everything to be replaced, but this war found 
impossible; so that a sum of money was made up, amounting to 
50,000 rials, and paid into an officer^s hands, who was ordered by 
his majesty to disburse the same equably for the several necessi- 
ties of the crew. 

The Emperor being about to remove his court to the most east- 
em part of his dominions, which was called Quanto, distant' from 
the latter place (Assaka) 120 leagues, his majesty had the Dutch* 
men and their ship conveyed to Eddo, that is, Jedo, and ordered 
two pounds of rice daily, and twelve ducats annually to be paid to 



294 ADAMS IN8TBUCT8 THE EMPKKOB IN MATHEMATICS* 

each man. Adams^ by command of the Emperor, built a ship of 
eighty tons, which gave great satisfaction, and raised him in snch 
favour that a yearly allowance of seventy ducats and two pounds 
of rice daily were ordered to be paid him — A.n. 1604. 

A.n. 1606. Adams had daily intercourse with the Emperor, 
and gave him lessons in geometry and mathematics. Being now five 
years in the island, he asked permission to return to see his wife 
and children; and hearing, through the Portuguese, that the 
Dutch and English had vessels at Siam, promised to bring each 
nation to trade at Japan ; but the Emperor would not part with 
him. Seeing no hopes for himself, he asked and obtained per- 
mission for his captain and crew to depart. He sent several 
letters by the captain, with this singular superscription, *'To 
my unknown friends and country .'' 

A.D. 1609. The Captain was killed at Malacca, and probably 
the letters fell into the hands of the Spanish or Portuguese. 
Hostilities were at this time going on between the Portuguese and 
Dutch at Macao ; the latter sent two ships to intercept some of the 
Portuguese traders between Firando and Macao, and missing their 
intended prize, anchored in Firando ; Adams introduced them to 
the Emperor, who readily entered into terms with them and per- 
mitted them to send two ships annually. 

A.D. 1611. This year a small Dutch ship came to Firando, 
laden with lead, elephants' teeth, damask, black taffety, raw silk, 
pepper, and cloth ; an excuse was made for not coming the pre- 
vious year. This year the Emperor rewarded Adams for his 
services, by granting him a manor, together with one hundred 
slaves or servants to work it. 

An extract from Adams's letter at this period states, that the 
Hollanders have in Japan " an Indies of money, so that there is 
no need for silver to be sent out from Holland ; for in Japan is 
much silver and gold, to serve for the Hollanders to handle whither 
they will in the East Indies, which is always provided for their 
commodities, which are generally lead, raw silk, damask, black 
and red cloths. Such like imports are ready money in Japan.'' 

His letter concludes with a description of Japan. '^ This island 
of Japan lieth in latitude 48° at the north extremity, and 85^ 
at the south ; in length 220 English leagues. The people are 
good of nature, courteous out of measure, and valiant in war. 
Justice is severely executed upon transgressors without partiality. 
There is not in the world a land better governed by civil policy. 
The people are very superstitious in their religion, being divers in 
opinion. If a ship come from England to traffic at Japan, not any 
nation should receive a better welcome;" and this it was in his power 
to procure, for which he praises God who hath given him favour with 
the Emperor : hence he could boldly promise that his countrymen 
should be as welcome and as free in comparison as in the river in 
London. 



ADAMS INVITES THS ENGLISH TO JAPAN. 295 

" Could our English merchants^ after settling in Japan^ procure 
trade with the Chinese^ then shall our country make great profit 
here, and the Company will not have need to send money out of 
England^ for in Japan there are gold and silver in abundance, and 
therefore by the traffic here they will take in exchange money 
enough for their investments in India and China. 

• " The Hollanders are now (1612) settled in Japan, and I 
(Adams) have got them that privilege, which the Spaniards could 
never obtain since they first came to Japan/^ 

Adams proceeds to say : — " If a ship is sent, let her not come 
where the Hollanders are (Firando) for it is a bad place for the sale 
of goods ; but let her come for the easterly part of Japan, lying in 
latitude 35°, where the King's and the Emperor's court is. Besides, 
should our ships come to Firando, thence to the court is about 
230 leagues, a wearisome way. The city of Edo lieth in 36°, and 
about this easterly part are the best harbours and a clear coast, so 
that there are no shoals nor rocks half a mile from the mainland j 
it is also good for the sale of merchandise. And comes there a 
ship here, I hope the Worshipful Company shall find me to be a 
servant of their servants, in such manner as that they shall be 
satisfied with my services. If any ship come near the easternmost 
part of Japan, let them enquire for me. I am called in the Japan 
tongue ' Augin Samma / by that name am I known all the sea- 
coast along. Nor fear to come near the mainland, for you shall 
have barks with pilots to carry you where you will.'' 

Adams thus concludes his letter to the agent of the English 
factory (Spalding) at Bantam ; — ^' Had I known that our English 
ships had trade in the Indies, I had long ago troubled you with 
writing, but the Hollanders kept it most secret from me till the 
year 1611, which was the first news I had of the trading of our 
ships in the Indies." 

A.D. 1613, June 12. This day arrived the ship '' Clove" from 
England, with a letter from King James, and presents for the 
Emperor of Japan j Captain Saris^ who was called the Company's 
general, and Bichard Cock, who was to be superintendent. A 
treaty, or charter of privileges, was obtained without the least dif- 
ficulty^ and a factory opened. 



ABSTBACT NABRATIVE OF ENGLISH INTERCOURSE 

WITH JAPAN. 

The English East India Company's introduction to Japan, was 
as above shewn by a letter of invitation from William Adams, an 
Englishman, a pilot in the Dutch service, who had been wrecked 
on the coast of Japan, and becoming a great favourite at court 
was naturally anxious to serve his native country. 

A.D. 1612. The East India Company at this time were desirous 



296 EMPEEOE OF JAPAN TO KINO JAMX8 OF BN0LAND. 

to open a communication with China^ and thinking this an oppor- 
tunity that might ultimately facilitate their wishes^ sent Captain 
Saris in the *' Clove** with a letter and presents firom King James^ 
to the Emperor of Japan. 

The '^ CloiMf* sailed firom Bantam, vi& the Moluccas, and arri- 
yed in Firando, early in the year 1613. 

When the *'Clovif* arrived, she was visited by lUng Foyne and 
his nephew, accompanied by Adams ; nothing could exceed the 
kindness and attention paid Captain Saris, who was quite unpre- 
pared for such a reception, having heard of the persecution of the 
Portuguese Jesuits, a short time previous. 

The King of Firando sent Captain Saris to Jedo, the capital^ 
providing every accommodation for his journey. His reception by 
the heir apparent, was in every respect most cordial, and every 
privilege required was freely granted, together with a letter and 
presents for the King of England. The following is a copy of the 
letter : — 



^^To the King of Great Britain. 

''Your Majesty's kind letter, sent by your servant Captain John 
Saris, (who is the first I have known to arrive in any part of my 
dominions), I heartily embrace, being not a little glad to under- 
stand of your great wisdom and power, as having three plentiful 
and mighty kingdoms, under your powerful command. I ac- 
knowledge your Majesty's great bounty, in sending me so unde- 
served a present of many rare things, such as my land affordeth 
not, neitner have I ever before seen ; which I receive not as from 
a stranger, but as from your Majesty, whom I esteem as myself. 

''Desiring the continuance of friendship with your Highness, and 
that it may stand with your good-liking, to send your subjects to 
any part or port of my dominions, where they shall be most 
heartily welcome. Applauding much their worthiness in their ad- 
mirable navigation, having with much facility discovered a coimtry 
so remote, being no whit amazed with the distance of so mighty 
a gulph, nor greatness of such infinite clouds and storms, from 
prosecuting honorable enterprizes of discoveries and merchandising : 
wherein they shall find me to further them, according to their 
desires. 

" I return to your Majesty a small token of my love, (by your 
said subject) desiring you to accept thereof, as from him that much 
rejoiceth in your fnendship. 

"And whereas your Majesty's subjects have desired certain 
privileges for trade, and settling of a factorv in my dominions, 
I have not only granted what they demanded, but have confirmed 
the same unto them under my broad seal, for better establishing 
thereof. 



JAPAN TBEATJ OF PRIYILSGES TO ENGLISH, 1613. 297 

^' From my Castle in Sunmga, this fourth day of ninth 
months in the eighteenth year of our diary. 

** Besting your Majesty^s friend^ the Highest Com- 
mander in this Kingdom of Japan. 

"Mina, Mouttono^ yei, ye, yeas.'' 

The following is a copy of the treaty or charter of privileges 
granted to the English. 

*^ Imprimia,*^ — ^We give free license to the subjects of the King of 
Oreat Britain^ viz. : — Sir Thomas Smithy governor^ and Company 
of the East India merchants and adventurers^ for ever safdy to 
come into any part of our empire of Japan^ with their ships and 
merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods. And 
to abide, buy^ sell^ and barter^ according to their own manner with 
all nations ; to tarry here as long as they think good, and depart 
at their pleasure. 

" Item the 2nd. — ^We grant unto them freedom of custom, for all 
such merchandise as either now they have brought^ or hereafter 
shall bring, into our kingdom^ or shall from hence transport to any 
foreign port. And do authorise those ships that hereafter shall 
arrive, and come from England, to proceed to present sale of their 
commodities, without further coming or sending up to our court. 

" Item the drd. — If any of the ships shall happen to be in danger 
of shipwreck, we will our subjects, not only to assist- them, but that 
such parts of the ship and goods as shall be saved, be returned to 
their captain, or Cape merchant, or assigns. And that they shall 
or may build one house or more for themselves in any part of our 
empire, where they shall think fittest, and at their departure to 
make sale thereof at their pleasure. 

" Item the 4th. — If any of the English merchants, or others, shall 
depart this life within our dominions, the goods of the deceased 
shall remain at the disposal of the Cape merchant. And all offences 
committed by them, shall be punished by the said Cape merchant 
according to his discretion ; and our laws to take no hold of their 
persons or goods. 

" Item the 6th. — We will that ye our subjects, trading with 
them for any of their commodities, pay them for the same, accord- 
ing to agreement, without delay, or return of their goods again 
imto them. 

" Item the 6th. — For such commodities as they have now 
brought, or shall hereafter bring, fitting for our service and proper 
use, we will that no arrest be made, thereof, but that the price 
be with the Cape merchant, according as they may sell to others, 
and present payment upon the delivery of the goods. 

'* Item the 7th. — ^If, in discovery of other countries for trade and 
return of their ships, they shall need men or provisions, we will 

* I have a cQpy of this treaty, or charter of privileges, in the Firagone (Japanese 
Cursive character, which has been examined by the distinguished oriental and ge« 
ueral scholar, N. filaod, E^ri-, of llandall's Park, Leatherhead.—R. M. M. 



208 XNOLISH TACTOAY OPBNSD AT JAPAN.* 

that ye our sabjects furnish them for their money^ as their need 
shall require. 

*^ Iteni the 8/A. — And without any other passport^ they shall and 
may set out to the northward, upon discovery of YeadsOj or any 
other port in or about our empire. 

" From our Castle, at Suringa, this first day of ninth 
month, and in the eighteenth year of our '' diary,'' 
according to our computation. 

'' Under-written, and sealed with our broad seal. 

" Mina, Mouttono, yei, ye, yeas.'' 

mace of Seal.) 

A.D. 1618. On the return of Captain Saris, a factory was 
opened, and the chief part of the cargo being broadcloth, he 
was rather disappointed that it did not sell quickly. He was soon 
told by the Natives, that it was strange that they should bring an 
article there and recommend it so strongly, and they themselves 
not make use of it. To this shrewd remark. Captain Saris, (or 
Lord Saris, as he was called, having obtained that title from the 
King of Firando) found some difficulty in replying, as he was 
dressed in silk, and his subordinates in Aistian. The Dutch were 
selling English-made cloth, at the rate of £16, per piece, and Cap- 
tain Saris reduced his to full one half, and yet had a handsome 
profit. 

Saris states that, at this period, the Japanese carried on an 
extensive trade with India and China. 

The prospects, under which a factory was opened in Japan, 
as given by Saris, were the Emperor's promised friendship, and the 
King of Firando's daily expression of kindness, by his personal 
visits ; the encouragement the English had met with in the Mo- 
luccas; the expectation of being soon permitted to trade with 
China, and advices he had received from Siam, and several other 
places adjacent. 

The factory consisted of a captain, that is Cape merchant, B. 
Cocks, William Adams, and six other Englishmen, three inter- 
preters, and two servants. 

A.D. 1614. The following articles were in great demand : — 
broadcloth, yellow and red; baizes, same colours; serges, silks, 
camlets, velvets, and India doths. Musk brought the same price 
as silver; thread of all colours, carpets; pictures, especially mose 
representing battles; warlike instruments, quicksilver, vermillion, 
lead ; tin, in sheets ; gold-leaf, cut and plain glass of every kind, 
and elephants' tusks. 

A.D. 1615. A letter of this date, from the head of the factory, 
states that an edict had been issued against all priests, friars, ana 



DUTCH PIRATES CALL THEMSELVES ENGLISH. 299 

nuns^ but that no interference with the English factory had taken 
place^ but on the contrary every encouragement had been given ; 
that several junks had been bmlt under the direction of Adams, 
that bright prospects of trade were likely to accrue from sending 
their own junks to Siam and Loo-choo. On the report of a re« 
bellion breaking out in the northern part of the empire^ all the 
military stores and lead were sold to the Emperor at a good profit. 
It was agreed that every vessel sent out must contain some pre- 
sent for the Emperor, according to the custom of the country. 
An edict had been issued preventing all natives from leaving the 
country ; and that no more native junks should leave the coast of 
Japan, but that the English may go and come as they will. 

A.D. 1616, The advices of the year from Japan were most flat- 
tering ; the coasting trade was succeeding beyond their most san>- 
guine hopes. The Emperor had visited the factory, which had 
already excited the jealousy of the Portuguese and Dutch. 

A.D. 1617. The chief complaint this year was the want of com- 
munication with China, to obtain raw silk, which was in greater 
demand than the imports could supply. The Dutch had a squadron 
in the seas of Japan and China, plundering Chinese JTrnks, ^nd 
giving out that they were English ships, and, by this mesins, 
damaging the character of Englishmen with the Chinese empire, 
and thus rendering the chance of an opening with China more 
uncertain. The demand for raw silk at this period was so great, 
that the Dutch were permitted to bring the prizes obtained from 
the Chinese junks (which is contrary to their treaty) into Firando. 
This circumstance caused a bad feeling between the English and 
Dutch, as shewn in the following letter from the superintendent of 
the English factory at Japan^ to the chairman of the East India 
Company in London. 

Port of Firando. 

Most worshipfrd Sir, 10th March, a.d. 1619. 

It is now two ;^ears since I wrote your worship any letter, 
and it is by means of the unlooked-for and unrulv proceedings of 
the Hollanders against our English nation, in all these parts of 
the world, not sparing us in the kingdom of Japan, contrary to 
the large privileges which the Emperor of Japan hath granted, 
that the Japanese should not meddle with us. But the Hollanders 
this year having seven ships, great and small, here, with sound of 
trumpet, have proclaimed open war against our nation by sea and 
land ; to take our English ships and goods, and kill our persons as 
their mortal enemies, which was done by Adam Westerwood 
(their admiral, as they term him,) openly proclaimed aboard all 
their ships. Also, they came to brave us before our own doors, 
and picking a quarrel, entered into our house, thinking to have 
cut all our throats, yet wounded but two persons ; and had it not 
been for the assistance of the Japanese, they would have killed us 
all, as they were a hundred to our one. They took a boat of ours ; 



800 DUTCH PEftSBCimONB OV XNOLrSH IK JAPAN. 

and one Richard King^ one of our servants, they ill-treated ; and, 
beside this, two of our barkes going beside their ships, they bent a 
piece of ordnance against them, which took false fire, but they 
shot at them with muskets, but missed the English and killed a 
Japanese; and for all this, no justice executed against them by 
the King of Firando, although the Emperor hath commanded him 
to do it. 

'' Two of the ships brought here this year are English ships, 
which they took from the English in the Indies ; and also, they 
took two others this year, riding at anchor in the road of Patania, 
where we haye a factors, and not doubting any such matter; in 
which fray they killed Captain Jourdan, our chief president of the 
worshipfh) company in the Indies, with divers others, and carried 
the ships and goods away. But six Of the mariners, which were 
in the English ships which they took, escaped from them, and 
came to our house ; they sending to me to have them sent back 
again ; unto whom I answered, I would first see their commission, 
how they durst presume to take our shipping and goods, and kill 
our king's men as they did. So they went to the King of Firando, 
desiring to have their Enghsh slaves (as it pleased them to call 
them) delivered unto them, and the answer they got was to de- 
mand them from the Emperor. 

'' This was the chief occasion that made them pick quarrels 
against us, and to have killed us all ; but, I hope in Ood, his 
Majesty, by the solicitation of our honourable and worshipful em- 
ployers, will not suffer his true and loyal subjects to lose their 
ships, lives, and goods, in such order as they do, by such an un- 
thankful and thievish rabble of them which are assembled together 
in these parts of the world, who make a daily practice to rob and 
spoil both friends and foes. I trust that yourself will be a solicitor 
in so just a cause, against so common an enemie. 

'^ This Adam Westerwood offered fifty rials of eight to any one 
that would kill me, and thirty for every other Englishman : but, 
hitherto, God hath preserved me and the rest in this. Although 
they wounded two or three, they are not dead. 

" I had secret information from their people to take heed of 
ourselves. I know not what else to write, but, I hope, by the 
next ship to go to England, where, God grant I may find you in 
good heidth. 

^' Your Worship^s, at command, 

'' RICHAED COCK. 
'* To the Bight Worshipful Sir Thomas Wilson.'' 

A.B. 1620. The communication had hitherto been with Bantam, 
but the '^ James Boyal " had been sent direct from London : her 
size was 1000 tons, and the splendid appearance of this vessel, 
compared with the Dutch and Portuguese^ had the contrary effed; 
to what was expected. The *' James Uoyal " was visited by the 
Emperor and all the Royal Family ; this gave such offence to the 



ABANDONMENT OF ENGLISH FACTORY AT JAPAN. 801 

Dutch and Portuguese^ that^ although they were determined ene- 
mies to each other^ they made common cause against the English. 

A.D. 1622. The last letter from Cock to Captain Saris states 
that a dangerous conspiracy had been discovered^ in which foreign- 
ers had been implicated^ which had altered the policy hitherto 
adopted by government to Europeans. Cock thus concludes this 
private letter to his friend Saris : — 

'^ Thus much 1 think good to advise you of: the present state 
of Japan is much altered from that is was at your being heere^ 
and^ for the rest^ I hope to tell you by worde of mouth at 
my return unto England next yeare^ Gt>d sparing me life and 
libertie.'' 

The cause of the East India Company breaking up their factory 
in Japan, was understood to be the want of an entrepdt in China, 
and a desire to economise their expenditure, and reduce the num- 
ber of their factories. 

The probable causes of the surrender of the East India Com- 
pany's factory at Firando, are as follows : — 

In 1613, the first year of business, a negotiation was entered into 
with two Chinese merchants^ who resided in Japan, with a view of 
opening a trade in that country, as raw silk was not supplied to meet 
the demand. The English agents were credulous enough to be- 
lieve the Chinese in their fair promises, to aid them in this object ; 
and in this way large suras of money were expended in bribes to 
the government officers at the Chinese court, and likewise to a 
number of intermediate envoys. This large expenditure had been 
continued for several years without the least probability of suc- 
ceeding. 

Secondly — The factory was settled at a port in opposition to 
Adams' instructions ; he stated in his letter, '^ the same articles, 
which are the staple commodities of our country, that is, cloths, 
are already too cheap in Japan, by reason of the ships from New 
Spain on the one part, and the Hollanders and Portuguese on the 
other; this competition has made good cloth as cheap in Japan as 
it is in England.'' 

Adams, in 1611, in writing for the English to come, gives a list 
of the imports brought by the Dutch, which were chiefly shipped on 
the way, viz.: ai Patania. The principal cargoes were the produce 
of the Dutch possessions, or Chinese commodities. Pepper was 
selling at Firando at 40«. per lOOlbs.; cloves, £5 sterling per lOOlbs. 
The imports from Patania were raw silk, damask, satin, taffaty, 
velvet, and many other articles of Chinese manufactures, collected 
there by a circuitous traffic. 

The great competition compelled the agents to seek a market in 
Siam and Cochin-China, and junks were purchased and commanded 
by Adams ; these speculations were unsuccessful, by reason of ship- 
wrecks, and the habitual cheating of the Chinese, with whom they 
principally traded at Siam ; one whole cargo was taken irom them, 
the crew narrowly escaping with their lives. 



808 DBATH OP WILLIAM ADAMS AT JAPAN. 

Thirdljr—The hostility of the Dutch manifested itself at a very 
early period of the setUement of the English factory* The refer- 
ence was usually to the King of Firando, who was too much en- 
gaged crucifying the Portuguese and Spanish missionaries, and 
also the native Christians, to pay attention to the English remon- 
strances. The King referred the contending parties generally to 
the Emperor, who resided 280 leagues distant. Adams seems to 
have anticipated something of this, and was anxious to have the 
factory as near as possible to the Emperor, to whom he had access 
at any time. But ms frequent absence in prosecuting trade along 
the coast, and probably a fear of sharing in the persecution that 
was then raging, prevented the English appealing to the Emperor. 

A letter ^m tne Superintendent of the English factory to the 
Court of Directors, dated the 18th December, a.d. 1620, appears 
to have decided the Company as to the temporary surrender of the 
factory. 

Superintendant Cock, in a letter of 1620, says, ^' our good friend 
Captain William Adams, departed out of this world the 16th May 
last, and made Mr. William Eaton and myself his executors : giving 
the one-half of his estate to his wife and child in England, and the 
other to a son and daughter he hath in Japan. I cannot but be 
sorrowful for the loss of such a man as Adams was, being our main- 
stay in these parts : he was in such favour with two Emperors of 
Japan, as never was any Christian ; and might freely have entered 
and had speech with the Emperors, when many Japan kings stood 
without, and could not be permitted. This Emperor hath con- 
firmed the lordship to his son, which the other Emperor gave to 
his father.^' 

1628. The East India council at Batavia, sent orders to have 
the Company's houses and godowns given into the custody of the 
King of Firando, to be preserved for the Company against their 
return ; and for greater security, a writing to that effect was to be 
taken from him or one of his banjews (secretaries.) 

A.D. 1673. The English East India Company never abandoned 
the idea of re-establishing their position in Japan. 

The ship ** Return'' was sent out, under the command of 
Simon Delbo, with a copy of the treaty entered into with the 
Company in 1613. 

This undertaking must have been proposed, in ignorance; a 
worse i>eriod could not have been selected, as the sequel will 
show. 

King Charles was allied to the most bitter enemy of Japan, 
viz, the Portuguese, who had been expelled the empire, only a 
few years previous, for an alleged conspiracy to usurp the 
throne. 

Again, Charles had declared war on the Dutch, — a naval war, 
the most fierce and bloody that probably ever was fought, — ^by 
which the Dutch lost New York, which was then considered a 
valuable possession. 



ENGLISH INTEROOURSB WITH JAPAN^ 1673. 803 

A.D. 1678. When the "Return" arrived at Nagasaki, she 
was visited by the authorities. The Captain produced a copy of 
the license granted to King James by the Emperor of Japan ; 
this document was perused with great attention, and then the 
Captain was asked for the original. The Captain replied, that 
when the factory was given up in 1628, the original treaty 
was returned to the Imperial Court. The next questions were, 
what religion do you profess, how long has your King been mar« 
ried to a Portuguese Princess, and has he had any children by 
her. The Captain stated that he professed the same religion as 
the Dutch, and was not a papist like the Portuguese; to the 
second inquiry he stated that the Kings of England were not 
permitted to marry any of their own subjects ; and that the 
state policy was always to strengthen their empire, by an alli- 
ance with foreigners. 

A.D. 1673. A demand was made for the arms, ammunition, &c. 
which were given up ; the Captain receiving a written acknow- 
ledgement for every article surrendered. 

The second day, the authorities visited the ship, put the same 
question as on the previous day, enquired would the English be 
satisfied to trade on the same terms as the Dutch, and asked why 
forty-nine years elapsed, without visiting their factory, which 
was still preserved. The Captain stated that England had 
twenty years of civil war, since they left Japan, besides foreign 
wars ; and that during war, it was no small matter to take so long 
a journey. He was then asked, if any of the crew were ever in 
Japan before, and was answered in the negative, which very much 
surprised them. The questions were put in Portuguese, and then 
in Dutch. 

The third daVs interview, the same questions were asain asked, 
as on the previous days. A Dutch vessel arriving ewly in the 
morning, the Captain hoisted his colours, with the cross in their 
flag, (a union-jack,) as a compliment. A copy of the questions of 
the previous day was handed to the Captain to sign, and he was 
asked why he carried two sorts of colours. The Captain stated, 
that the colours he then had, were the ancient colours of England, 
for many centuries, to the truth of which the Dutch could testify ; 
that the cross was not worn with any superstitious views, but as a 
mark of distinction. The Captain also stated, that the Honourable 
Company, who sent him, out of compliment to their prejudices, 
procured a second set of colours at Formosa, red and white, with- 
out the cross', which he wore coming into port. The authorities, 
convinced that these were not the English colours, stated that 
they were perfectly satisfied. 

The fourth day^s examination commenced, by asking if England 
was ever subject to Spain or Portugal, as their colours and flags 
were alike. A document was produced, written in English, and 
signed by Martinus Caesar, the chief of the Dutch factory, in 



804 JAPANltl QVS8TIONS TO THB BM0LI8H. 

ivhieh it was stated that the English had entered into a treaty oi 
peace with the HoUandert^ and contrary to that treaty she had en- 
tered into an alliance with France^ andvmade war against the Hol- 
landers, although of the same religion with them : this the English 
captain denied all knowledge or belief of. 

Articles were then drawn np binding the English and Butch to 
good conduct to each other while they remained in Japan ; these 
articles were signed by both parties. 

In one month after the arrival of the '* Return/' an answer was 
given to the captain, vis : — 

''That inasmuch as the King of England was married to a 
daughter of the King of Portugal, their greatest enemy, they could 
not admit the English to re-open in their factory, and /or no other 
rea$on" 

The captain asked permission to remain forty days, for the trade 
winds, which was readily granted ; and likewise proposed giving 
the Return two months start of the Dutch ships, lest they should 
molest the English, as their two countries were at war. Merchan- 
dise was also taken in exchange for the provision supplied to the 
Return. 

Previous to sailing, the captain was asked, why it was his com- 
pany had still carried on their trade at Bantam, and not at Japan. 
The answer was, that pepper was the chief article obtained at Ban- 
tam, in exchange for EngUsh manufactures, and that the Company 
could not procure it in any other country. 

The refusal to trade appeared to surprise the Japanese as much 
as the Captain, from the many expressions of regret which fell from 
them, and each interview convinced the captain of their anxiety 
that he should succeed. Their polite and amiable manners made 
a lasting impression on the captain's mind, who ascribes his repulse 
to the false news brought by the Dutch captain. 

During his stay, the visits of the Japanese were frequent, and on 
many of their questions on the affairs of Europe, the captain found 
himself much more deficient than his enquirers. 

A. D. 1792. The English East India Company appointed a 
committee to report on the practicability of opening new markets 
for British manufactures. The relations between the Company 
and China must have influenced the committee in giving the fol- 
lowing report. It was not, in fact, politic of the East India Com- 
pany, in reference to their then existing pecuniary interests, that 
a free intercourse should be established with Japan. The report 
stated : That it never could be an object for Great Britain to carry 
on a trade with Japan ; that the Japanese were supplied with Bri- 
tish woollens through the Chinese who visited Japan. If these 
goods were sent direct to Japan, the defalcation in exports to 
China must be made up in bullion or by drafts on Bengal — and 
further, that the copper received in return for these woollens, no 
matter what market they were sent to, would interfere with the 



BRITISH VISIT JAPAN^ 1796 AND 1808. SOS 

produce of the British mines/^ The report concludes^ ^'tfaftt sup* 
posing a cargo of woollens^ lead^ and other things were sent to 
Japan^ copper to the amount of j630,000 must be received in pay^ 
ment^ to the great injury of our native mines/' 

A. D. 1 796. His Majesty's schooner Providence^ Captain Brough- 
ton^ visited the Japanese islands on a voyage of discovery. It was 
not within his province to make any overtures for trade^ but he 
testifies to the kindness and hospitality of the natives^ who supplied 
him with fish and many delicacies. 

A. D. 1808. Holland being in possession of the French^ a Bri- 
tish frigate^ the Phaeton^ Captain Pellew^ was sent to intercept the 
Dutch vessels trading between Batavia and Japan ; not meeting 
with them^ the captain entered the harbour^ and asked for wood 
and water. The authorities came on boards and also the chief of 
the Dutch factory^ from whom Captain Pellew learned that the ob- 
ject of his pursuit had not arrived. The Dutch chief no sooner got 
on shore^ than he excited the authorities to refuse the claim ; but 
without effect^ as wood and water^ and likewise two cows^ were 
sent on board. 

A.D. 1808. The visit of the ^' Phaeton*^ appears to have been at- 
tended with prejudice to the English^ if we could bring ourselves 
to believe Dutch history^ which states that Captain PeUew's con- 
duct was most warlike and offensive ; so much so^ that the Japanese 
governor^ not being prepared to repulse him on his first entrance^ 
and dreading the consequences, resorted to the usual mode of 
Japanese officials, viz., committing suicide. 

The historian Doeff charges the death of the governor, on what 
he calls the untoward circumstance of Captain Pellew entering the 
harbour, which is ten miles from the town; but how was the com- 
mander to know the effects of his entering a port in want of water, 
&c. ? The Japanese ports were never considered either neutral, 
peaceful, or hostile. As to the consequence that followed, on the 
Dutch governor it must fall, as he violated his word with Captain 
Pellew, which was pledged over a glass of wine in the cabin of the 
'^ Phaeton.^* It is absurd to suppose that Captain Pellew would act 
in any manner derogatory to his station, for which he would have 
to answer. It was fortunate that when the Myheenender published 
his version of the case, it was stoutly denied by those who were 
on board at the time, and were then alive. As to the warfike ap- 
pearance, no boat went ashore, and the marines were kept under 
deck as much as possible. The only thing pressed, was remuner- 
tion for the large stock of provinons sent on board, which, however, 
was firmly refused by the Japanese. 

A.B. 1811. Java being in possession of theEnglish government, 
the governor. Sir S. Baffles, took advantage of the circumstance, 
and despatched two vessels, in 1813^ to Japan, thinking by this means 
he woidd be enabled to renew the British trade with Japan. 
Nagasaki bdng deemed a dependency of Batavia, the British go* 



S06 URITISlI TKADE TO JAPAN IN 1818. 

vemoT fe]t himself justified in daiming the transfer of the factory ; 
and for more effectually and quietly carrying out his intentions^ 
he despatched a new Dutch governor to relieve Doeff. Dr. Ainslie^ 
of the East India Company's service^ and Heer Wardenaar^ were 
associated with the new gOTcmor, as commissioners ; Heer War- 
denaar had been chief of the Dutch factory a few years previously. 

The goods shipped were sugar^ spices, woollens, tin, and chintzes, 
all of which were of a very inferior quality. The total amounted 
to 208,000 dollars, and the return cargo to 342,000 dollars ; balance 
in favour of the speculation 44,000 dollars ; amount paid for freight 
82,809 dollars. 

A.n. 1818. The great difficulty of procuring merchant vessels 
at this period, except at most extravagant freight, was the reason 
the returns were so small. 

Captain Oordon.'s Visit to Japan. — a.d. 1818. Captain 
Gordon sailed from Bengal for the Bay of Jedo, in a brig fifty-six 
tons burden. He anchored in the Bay of Shimada, which is situ« 
ated within twenty leagues of the capital. The brig was soon visited 
by government officers, to whom Captain Gordon communicated 
his wish to be permitted to return with a cargo of goods suitable 
to their wants. 

. These officers pointed out a much safer anchorage, and ten* 
dered him the service of their pilots, and several boats. They 
asked him to send his fire-arms and ammunition^ and also his 
rudder, on shore, with which he complied. 

This was no sooner done, than the brig was surrounded by twenty 
small boats which were joined to each other; outside of these were 
stationed upwards of fifty large boats, and three junks, which were 
full as large as the brig. The number of men who kept guard 
averaged from 500 to 800. The first and second day the visitors 
on board were very numerous. On the fourth day two interpreters 
came on board, who understood the Dutch, English, and Russian 
languages. 

The communication was carried on in the Dutch language. 
Their first inquiry was if the English and Dutch were at peace i 
they appeared well aware that there was a general peace through- 
out Europe. They took down the name and birthplace of every 
one on board ; but the captain^s birthplace, and that of all his 
family, was rigidly enquired into. 

All attempts to prevail on them to accept of seeds, fowls, and 
pigs, proved ineffectual. They had a Dutch-English dictionary 
on board with them each time, which enabled Captain Gordon to 
convey his sentiments most satisfactorily. 

The King of Holland was inquired after, and also his son. They 
were informed that he had returned home after a long residence 
in England. The aflFairs of France, the captivity of Napoleon, and 
the Battle of Waterloo, were all talked over. The interpreters 
appeared most anxious to know if Captain Golowin was then go- 
vernor of Oehatsk. 



CAPTAIN GORDON^S VISIT TO JAFAN^ 1818. 807 

The nautical instruments on board were examined ; and with 
their several uses they appeared perfectly acquainted^ remarking 
that those instruments were better made in London^ than in 
other countries. With their polite and agreeable manners Captain 
Gordon was much pleased. The late occupation of Java by the 
British^ and subsequent surrender^ was more than once discussed. 

The sixth day, fresh water was brought, a circumstance which 
had a bad appearance of ultimate success. They guaged the water* 
casks, with a view it was supposed to ascertain the length of time 
the brig had been at sea ; an account was kept of the number of 
buckets put on board. 

The men engaged filling the water were very loquacious ; one of 
them had a string of beads, similar to what the Roman Catholics 
make use of in their devotional exercises. Their frequent allusion 
to London manufactures, rather surprised the Captain. 

The seventh day, the interpreter came on board, and producing 
some written papers said: 'You have applied for permission to 
trade with Japan ; we are desired by the Governor of this place^ to 
state that this permission cannot be granted ; and the governor 
wishes you to sail with the first fair wind/^ 

This opportunity was taken advantage of again, to ask Captain 
Gordon, if he knew anything of the Governor of Ochatsk; it was 
intimated that to -grant the permission to trade, after refusing 
Russia, would be likely to give umbrage to a near and powerful 
neighbour. After their departure, the arms and rudder were return* 
ed, and thirty boats were sent to tow the brig out of the bay. When 
the tow-boats were gone, the number of visitors, on that and the 
following day, amounted to some thousands, most of whom were 
anxious to barter, and expressing their regret at the departure of 
the brig. Some of them appeared to fear the consequence of 
visiting the foreigners, others were quite regardless of the conse- 
quence. 

Captain Gordon deserved great credit for this voyage, and his 
daring journey through Siberia. The injustice he experienced at 
Madras, and the refusal of redress in England, have seriously af- 
fected his health and temper. He is a most estimable man. 



ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF DUTCH INTERCOURSE 

WITH JAPAN. 

The Dutch intercourse with Japan> was in like manner with 
the Portuguese, occasioned by the shipwreck of five vessels under 
the command of Admiral Mahu, who sailed from the Texelj 
about the year a.d. 1599. Four of these Dutch East India Cpm« 
pany vesseb were lost rounding Cape Horn, the fifth had an 
English pilot on board, named Adams, who steered his vessel into 

x2 



SOB DUTCH INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN. 

tome of the namerotia islands on the Japanese ooast. The Japanese 
conld not but regard her as deservinfir of their sympathy, for 
ont of a crew of upwards of one hundred^ only seven were able to 
do duty. 

The ship was regarded as a prise, and the crew harshly used ; 
but Adams the pilot, being a frank, interesting fellow, became a 
fiiTorite with the Emperor. In a few months the ship was res- 
tored to her Captain, on his undertaking to represent Japan as a 
fevourable place for his Company to trade with. Adams was detain- 
ed (see English Intercourse.) 

A.D. 1602. No advantage appears to have been taken of this 
figivourable opening by the then enterprising Dutch East India 
Company. 

A.D. 1609. Two Dutch vessels arrived at the port of Firando» 
and were well received, but the Japanese were disappointed in 
receiving no raw silk, not being aware that the Dutch were strictly 
excluded from trading with China. It was a singular coincidence 
that the Japanese had the same unfavorable opinion of the Dutch, 
that the Chinese entertained about the same time, vis. that their 
cargoes depended on the plunder of other nations. The ruling 
passion of the Dutch was strangely devekqied on this occasion; 
without the opportunity of procuring a pound of silk in an honor- 
able way, they strongly urged the Japanese to grant them a 
monopoly of that article. They promised to return next year; but 
no silk arriving, the Japanese were confirmed in their suspicions. 

A Leiter $aid to have been sent from the Mmperw of Japan^ to 

the King of Holland, 

22nd July, 1610 a.d. 

'^ I, Emperor and King of Japan, send my beat wishes to the 
King of Holland, who hath sent from so far countries to visit me, 
greeting. I rejoice greatly in your writing and sending to me, 
and wish that our countries were nearer the one to the other, 
whereby we might continue and increase the friendship begun be- 
twixt us, through your Majesty^s presence, whom I imagine in 
conceit to see, in respect I am unknown unto your Majesty. 
And that your love towards me is manifested throngh your liber- 
ality in honouring me with four presents, whereof though I had no 
need, yet coming in your name, I receive them in great worth, 
and hold them in great esteem. 

'^ Your subjects desire to trade in my country, which is of little 
value and very small ; they also desire to abide near my court, 
whereby in person I might help and assist them : however this 
cannot be, as now through the inconvenience of the country; 
et notwithstanding, I will not neglect, as already I have been to 
e careful of them ; and give in charge to all my governors and 
subjects, that in what places and havens, in what part soever they 



I 



JAPANESE LSTTSR TO THB UCTTCH SOVEREIGN. 309 

shall arrive, they dudl show them all favour aud firiendship to their 
persons, ships, and merdiandise, Wherein your Majesty, or your 
subjects need not to doubt or fear au^ht to the contrary ; for 
they may come as freely as if they came into your Majesty's own 
havens and countries, and so may remain in my country to trade. 

'' And the friendship begun betwixt me and my subjects with 
you, shall never be impaired on my behalf, but augmented and 
increased. 

^' I am partly ashamed that your Majesty (whose name and 
renown through your valorous deeds is spread throughout the 
whole world) should cause your subjects to come from so far 
countries into a country so unfitting as this is, to visit me, and to 
offer unto me such friendship as I have not deserved. But con« 
sidering that your affection hath been the cause thereof, I could 
not but friendly entertain your subjects, and yield to their request; 
whereof this shall serve as a testimony. 

^' That they in all places, countries, and islands, under my obe- 
dience, may trade, and traffic, and build houses, serviceable and 
needfiil for their trade and merchandise ; wherein they may trade 
without any hindrance, and at their pleasure, as well in time to 
come, as for the present, so that no man shall do them any wrong ; 
and I will maintain them and defend them as my own subjects. 

'' I promise likewise, that the persons which I understand shall 
be left here, shall now and at all times, be treated as recommended 
unto me, and in all things them ; whereby your Majesty shall find 
us as your friend and neighbours. 

*' For the matter passed betwixt me and your Majesty's servants, 
which would be here too long to repeat, I refer myself unto 
them.'' 

A. D. 1611. In the month of August, this year, a Dutch ship 
arrived, and it required all the influence which Adams possessed 
to obtain for them the privileges that their competitors enjoyed. 
The following edict was issued : — 

"All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, whatever 
place or port they put in, we do hereby expressly command all and 
every one of our subjects, not to molest the same in any way, nor 
to be a hindrance to them, but to show them all manner of help, 
favour, and assistance. Every one shall beware to maintain the 
friendship, in assurance of which we have been pleased to give our 
imperial word, and every one shall take care that my commands be 
kept. 

30th August, A. D. 1611. 25th of the seventh mane. 

A. D. 1622. The interval of this period, of eleven years, is not 
marked with any preference to either of the rival trades. But the 
Japanese government could not be ignorant of the unsuccessful at- 
tempt of the Dutch to drive the Portuguese fromMacao, their strong 
hold, and necessary trading mart in China. With the aid of the 



810 DUTCH FACTORY AT JAPAN CONVI8CATBD, 

Chinese gorernment, the Portuguese saccestftilly routed the Dutch^ 
who to punish the Chinese^ took possession of Formosa in 1628. 
This acquisition strengthened the Dutch position in Japan^ as was 
proved in the reception of their envoy^ while the Portuguese was 
most scornfully rejected. 

The Dutch' were so elated with this mark of preference^ that 
an envoy was sent the following year from Batavia. The en* 
voy represented himself as coming from the King of Holland 
direct^ but the imposition was detected and he was dismissed from 
court. 

Nuits, the disappointed envoy^ was subsequently appointed go- 
vernor over the Dutch possessions in Formosa^ and falling in with 
two Japanese junks^ detained them by way of revenge^ and totally 
regardlesH of the interest of his government. The crews after 
waiting upwards of a year^ rose en^masfte, and took the governor 
prisoner. The crew demanded compensation for all their lost time^ 
and payment for 20,000 pounds of raw silk^ which they had 
bought in China at three shillings and sixpence per pound, and 
which they expected to sell in Japan at the rate of six shillings per 
pound. 

A. D. 1630. When the Japanese crew returned to Firando, they 
reported the affairs at Formosa. Some idea of the extent of their 
trade may be formed^ from the circumstance of the Japanese go- 
vernment seizing nine ships that were then in the harbour, and 
putting an instant stop to their trade. 

Agreeable to the expressed wish of the Dutch director^ their 
effects were converted into cash, and amounted to upwards of one 
million dollars. Matters remained in statu quo for three years^ 
without hearing from Batavia^ or the authorities hearing from 
Japan. 

The military authorities of Formosa^ were placed in a most awk- 
ward position, their governor was a prisoner, and if summary ven- 
geance were taken on the Japan crews, they were well aware 
of the consequence : the lawful demand was paid, and as a 
matter of course, the whole affair was reported on their return to 
Japan. 

A. D. 1686. The authorities at Batavia, recollecting the affair 
at J^'^ormosa, recalled the governor Nuits, and sent him to Japan, 
to be punished as the Japanese might think proper. Contrary to 
all expectation, the Japanese were satisfied with getting the author 
of the outrage, and re-opened the trade as usual, keeping Nuits in 
prison. 

It is quite evident that the Japanese did not solely rely on 
foreigners for their supply of silk, and it iai said that they always 
sailed with Dutch flags, justly fearing the Spanish and Portuguese 
pirates, and being well aware that at this period, the Dutch flag 
was the terror of the Indian seas. 



DUTCH AH> JAPANB8E MASSACRE OF CH&19TXANS. Q\f 

f 

A. D. 1637. This year brought from Batavia^ an embassy, with 
most valuable presents, and a petition for the release of Nuits, 
which had the desired effect. 

A. D. 1638. Persecution being at its height against the Spanish 
and Portuguese, the Dutch again applied for a monopoly of the 
trade, and the final expulsion of the Portuguese, and proposed a 
cordial co-operation with the Japanese, for the capture of Macao. 
The attention of the Japanese was diverted from this project by the 
breaking out of a rebellion in the principalities of Ariniaand Sima- 
bara^ by the persecuted native Cluistians, who to the number of 
40,000 shut themselves up in the latter place. 

A. D. 1638. The Japanese failing to reduce the fortress^ and 
scatter the insurgents, called in the Dutch, whose cannon were 
mercilessly employed in the slaughter of forty thousand of their 
fellow-creatures. The name of the Dutch governor was Bocke* 
becker. 

A. D. 1640. This year the Spaniards and Portuguese were 
finally expelled for ever from China, and lest the town of Nagasaki 
should suffer from the loss of foreign trade, the Dutch factory was 
removed from Firando to the prison in Desima, lately occupied by 
the Portuguese. An edict also appeared this year, forbidding any 
native of Japan to leave the coasts of the empire, on pain of death ; 
and the more effectually to carry out the intentions of government, 
their junks were constructed on a new model. All the remon- 
strance of the Dutch was in vain, they pleaded their faithful services, 
their ready compliance in aiding at the butchery at Simabara only 
two years previously. Their appeals were met with the following 
reply : " You observe Sunday, you date from the birth of Christ ; 
to him you pray ; the gospels, the prophets, and apostles are your 
sacred writings, and there is scarcely any difference between your 
belief and that of the Portuguese. We require, that first you 
erase the dates from your buildings, and cease from observing the 
Sabbath.^' 

A. D. 1640. Degrading as these terms were, the long cherished 
hopes of monopoly, and the innate love of avarice, predominated 
over conscience, honour, and nationality. Of the use the Dutch 
made of the monopoly, or the return of profits, very few materials 
are to be found. Their returns hitherto were in silver; and are- 
quest was made in 1641 for gold, which was readily granted, so 
that the amount of the return the first year was upwards of twelve 
hundred thousand florins. The war between China and Tartary, 
had just commenced, so that the trade between China and Japan 
must have been solely in the hands of the Dutch ; no return can 
be obtained, but the profits must have been enormous. 

A. D. 1641. The following edict was issued to the Dutch about 
this period : — 

1st. " You Dutchmen shall from henceforth have no commuui-^ 



812 JAFANXBS IlCITRUCTlQlliB TO JAPANXAB, 



catiou with the Portuguese, in either buying or selling tbem goods. 
It we find that you have> you shall be prohibited fircnn coming to 
Japan. 
2nd. " If you intend not to be molested in your trade to Japan, 

iou shall send us word of any attempt that the Portuguese may 
ave on our empire ; likewise, if the Portuguese have conquered any 
other country, or converted them to their religion, if so let iis have 
early intimation. 

8rd. ** You shall not molest any Chinese junks bound for Japan. 

4th. '^ In all countries you frequent with your ships, if there be 
any Portuguese there, you shall have no communication with them. 
If there be any countries frequented by both nations, (supposed to 
mean Portuguese and Spaniards,) you shall take down, in writing, 
a full account of the names of all such countries or places, and hy 
the captain of the first ship you send here, deliver the same to oar 
governors. 

5th. '' The Liqujans (Loochooans) being the subjects of our 
empire, you shall not plunder their ships. 

6th. " In case of fire at your fSeustory, at Desima, you must re^ 
move to Spy-glass Mountain, and remain with the coast guard.^' 

By their ready compliance with every demand, the Japanese left 
the Dutch trade unmolested for many years. 

A.D. 1660. The position of the Dutch in Japan, was seriously 
affected by their loss of the Island of Formosa, which was wrested 
from them by the celebrated pirate Koxinga, whose father was a 
native of Japan, and carried on a large trade between both coun- 
tries. Imhoff, the Dutch president, does not deny that the Japan-* 
ese authorities may have secretly assisted the pirate to expel the 
Dutch. Independent of the loss of Formosa, the Dutch power in 
India was fast declining, if not annihilated ; a circumstance well 
known to the Japanese, who were heretofore in some measure 
afraid of thcDutch. 

A.D. 1661. Imhoff, the Dutch president, sa^s, ''about this time 
we were obliged to submit to the most galling msults, the governor 
declining to even receive our written representations, telling us to 
leave Japan if we wished.^' The humiliating state to which the 
Dutch were reduced, was the natural consequence, that may be 
expected by any nation that does not render herself respected and 
formidable. Independent of this, however, the Dutch factiny had 
become a sink of the most disgraceful corruption, and the factors 
quietly submitted to the most unmanly degradation. The com- 
bined influence of meanness and fear led to the present degraded 
position of the Dutch in Japan. 

A.D. 1670. There does not appear to be any interruption to 
trade for the previous tenyears, but the export of silver was prevented 
for the future, and copper substituted, together with gola. Sir S. 
Raffles gives the return for this year at 100,000 kobangs of coined 
gold^ the profit on which was upwards of 1,000,000 florins. 



ftSSTAlCtlONS Oil THS BUTCH TBADl. 313 

A.D. 1672. The restrictioiis hitherto laid on the Dutch^ were of 
little coiiBequence^ compared to what was in store for them, viz. : 
a new system of valuation^ and a depreciation of the gold kobang 
to six taels^ two mace. Against this fiscal robbery no remon- 
strance was proposed ; a qtdet submission was yielded, which they 
soon found good cause to regret. 

A.n. 1685. Another regulation was made, the valuation system 
was abolished^ and the whole annual trade limited to 300,000 taels, 
of which two-thirds should be piece goods, and one-third silk. 

▲.n. 1689. This year the enduring power of the Dutch, was 
again tested by the Japanese. The copper, heretofore exported 
without any limitation, and from its superior quality commanding a 
very high price in Europe, was limited to 25,000 peculs, (125 lbs. 
is a pecul,) and the import was duty considerably augmented; 
but more troubles were in store for the Dutch. 

A.D. 1696. A new kobang, one third less in value than the 
former, wais tendered, and received by the Dutch authorities with* 
out a murmur. The new kobang weighed 13 carats 6 grains ; the 
old 20 carats 10 grains. This change made a difference to the 
Dutch of 72 marks on every 1000. The old rendered a profit of 
25 per cent, the new a positive loss of 15 per cent. 

A.D. 1710. Another reduction of the kobang toone half its original 
value, viz. from 4ls, sterling, to 21«» and 8^., this new currency 
the Dutch were compelled to receive at the old price. 

A.D. 1714. The exportation of copper was further limited this year 
to 15,000 peculs, and the number of vessels was to depend on the 
quantity of copper on hand, but in no case was the number to ex- 
ceed three each year. 

A.D. 1721 • A reduction of the quantity of copper, from 15,000 to 
10,000 peculs. Their annual expenses were 200,000 florins, and 
their net profits, which were nearly 660,000 florins, would not now 
pay expenses. 

M. Imhoff in his memoirs, in some measure accounts for the 
impositions so gradually and successfully practised. He states, 
that the Company's servants were selected, without due regard to 
their character or abilities, hence frequent complaints from the 
Japanese of their bad conduct, their promising to import suitable 
goods, and improve the quality ; the private trade allowed smug* 
ghng, and gross peculation. But above all submitting to a reduc- 
tion of the currency in the first instance. Yet the Dutch had so 
frequently pledged their word as to the goods, and particularly as 
re^urds a varied assortment, that at last, they lost all confidence in 
the Dutch word or promises. 

Sir S. Raffles estimates, that from £40,000,000 to £60,000,000 
sterling were drained fr^m Japan in the period of sixty years ; thus 
their fears were raised for their metallic circulation, and there waa 
no paper money to supply its place. 

A.D. 17441 This year the Company seriously thought of abandon- 



814 tTATIONABT POtlTION OF THE DUTCH. 

ing the trade with Japan, and the question was aubmitted to the 
home government : but about this time the Japanese government 
took compassion on them, by promising them a gift, in the shape 
of a drawback of 6000 taels. The Dutch obtained a new charter 
in return for their early success, as it appears that notwithstand* 
ing all the peculation, they divided among their shareholders for 
the first twenty years, upwards of 30,000,000 of guilders. The 
embarrassment of the company, (although restricted to two ships 
annually,) compelled them to take gold in place of the other pro- 
ductions of the country. The value of their cargoes for several 
years did not average more than 300,000 per annum, the annual 
rent of their prison alone being 3500 rix dollars. 

A.D. 1781. The States-general advanced them a loan which en^ 
abled them to hold their position in Japan, and had the effect of 
reviving their trade. 

A.D. 1796. The Dutch East India Company were prevented 
sending their annual ship to Japan this year, owing to the French 
occupation of Holland, and in the succeeding year sent an English 
vessel with an American pass for one yearns trade ; what flag she 
made use of it is difficult to conjecture. 

A.D. 1811. The Dutch falling under the dominion of Napoleon^ 
the Britiiih took possession of the island of Java. These frequent 
changes were not calculated to elevate the Dutch in the estima- 
tion of the haughty and unconquered Japanese. The situation of 
their servants in tfapan, must have been very unenviable ; for up- 
wards of three years they were deprived of seeing or hearing from 
head-quarters. 

A.D. 1815, Java was restored to the Dutch, and the trade with 
Japan has ever since continued, with the exception of 1828-1829 
to the north-east coast. 

The position of the Dutch in Japan, has been stationary for the 
last twenty years. Two vessels are annually chartered for the 
voyage, which occupies six or eight weeks from Batavia ; a portion 
of the cargo is sent by the government, the remaining portion is 
taken by private merchants, who purchase permission from the go- 
vernment ; the extent or nature of the trade is not very positively 
known. Some relaxation is said to have taken place within the 
last twenty years, which is probable enough, considering how in- 
dispensable the Dutch are to the Japanese, if only in conveying to 
them the state and alliance of all the European governments. The 
Japanese have had translated into their own language a full record 
of the whole of our proceedings and conquests in China, and are now^ 
it is said, disposed to evince a different line of conduct towards us. 

A.D. 1817. Baron Von Imhoff, after ten years residence in 
Japan as the chief superintendent of the Dutch Factory, thus con- 
cludes his report.—" There might still be a trade of 1,000,000 
florins per annum, if the productions of the country were taken in 
exchange.^' It was his " fiiin belief, that Japan was in every respect 



FQltTUGUEftS INTERCOUltSS WITH JAPAN. 81^ 

now as anxious to cultivate trade as formerly; and that there cottld 
be no po^ible reason for relinquishing the trade^ if the servants of 
the company would only attend to the measures laid down by the 
government, viz. clear accounts^ correct conduct, and a little 
honesty." 



ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF PORTUGUESE 
INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN. 

It is a singular circumstance, that the great empire of Japan should 
have escaped aU the enterprising and skilful navigators, that the 
western world produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

The Portuguese, in one of their early voyages to China, (a.d. 
1542) were shipwrecked on one of the islands of Japan. This 
island was in the province of Bungo, the prince of which at that 
time ruled independently over a large portion of the island of 
Kiusin. Nothing could exceed the kindness and attention paid to 
the strangers, who were certainly the first Europeans that visited 
their empire. They were allowed to depart, after undertaking to 
send a ship every second year. This favourable opening does not 
appear to have been taken much advantage of until Emanuel^ King of 
Portugal, conquered Goa on the Malabar coast. 

Goa was in full possession of the Portuguese in a.d. 1510. 
Prom this period may be traced the regular intercourse and settling 
of a factory in Nagasaki ; this, and the Portuguese settlement at 
Macao, a sea-port town in China, at the entrance of the river of 
Canton, was most advantageous. The first insight they obtained 
of the vast resources and mineral wealth of Japan, was from a 
young Japanese, who fled to Goa. The well-known zeal of the 
Portuguese Jesuits to propagate their religion, led them to send 
the celebrated St. Francis Xavier to Japan along with the youth 
who had fled. 

They lauded in Kagosima, in the dominions of the Prince of 
Satzuma, who, to encourage trade in his principality, gave him 
permission to preach the Gospel ; however, the zealous missionary 
did not confine his labours to that place, but repaired to Firando, 
where he was eminently successful. 

The Princes of Bungo and Omura (who had been baptized) sent 
an embassy to Pope Gregory XIII. about this jperiod. The his- 
torians of those times appear to have lost sight of commerce alto* 
gether, and there is nothing recorded but jealousy and contention, 
beween one prince and another. 

About this period (1581 a.d.) the two crowns of Spain and 
Portugal being united, Manilla and the Philippines became the 
great emporium of the Eastern trade. 

A.D. 1588. The celebrated Taiko, or Taycasama, succeeded to 



816 JAPANMB WAa WITH COABA. 

the throne; and though at first fnendly to the missionaries, 
changed his policy in 1585-6, and ordered every one of the foragn 
missionaries to concentrate in Firando within twenty days, and 
leave the empire in six months, on pain of death. 

It does not appear that commerce met with any interraptioii at 
this time; on the contrary it was most prosperous, the Japanese 
themselves trading to India and other places. In 1589 an am« 
bassador arrived from Goa, to endeavour to obtain terms for the 
missionaries, but without success. Trade was however guaranteed. 

A.D. 1590. Taiko declared war against Corea, as a prelude to 
the long cherished hope of reaching China by their aid. It is 
said that lus intention was to break up the feudal system, by send- 
ing the nobles to fight his battles, calculating as much on their 
defeat (and consequent overthrow) as on their victcHry. 

A.n. 1592. Of his ambition there is fuU proof, in earnestly 
demanding homage from the governor of the Philippines; the 
missionaries failing to obtain this, their doom was sealed. 

A.D. 1592. The most extraordinary rivalry now commenced be- 
tween the Spanish priests and Portuguese Jesuits, the former claim- 
ing an equal share in the harbours of the Japanese missions with the 
latter; the Spanish merchants from Manilla, were equally desirous 
to shaure the golden harvest that the Portuguese were reaping in 
Japan. 

A.D. 1692. The Japanese armies were suocessfol over the 
Coreans, and the commanders and ofiicers of the former were all 
converted Christians, which in some measure caused a relaxation of 
the edict against the Jesuits in Japan. Notwithstanding these 
dissensions, commerce progressed year by year, owing it is thought 
to the anxiety of the different princes to get foreign ships to their 
respective ports. 

A.n. 1596. The Spanish intercourse with Japan met with a 
sad disaster. A Spanish ship from Manilla to Acapulco, was 
driven on the Japanese coast ; and relying on the* good faith that 
existed in commercial matters between the united kingdoms of 
Spaiu and Portugal, put into the port of the prince of Toso. The 
prince confiscated the ship and cargo as a lawful prisse ; the com- 
mander thinking it good policy to shew on the map the extensive 
territories of Spain, he was asked in return, how half the world 
had been acquired ? The commander, being it is supposed ignorant 
of the existing prejjudice against the Jesuits, stated that his king 
first sent priests and converted the natives, and then sent troops 
to join the Christians. It is needless to state the effect ; upwards 
of twenty priests were crucified. 

Tacosamo gave expression to his feelings by issuing the follow- 
ing edict; — " I have condemned to death these prisoners for their 
having come from the Philippines to Japan, under the pretended 
title of ambassadors, and for their having penisted in my lauds 
without my permission, and preaehed the Christian religion against 



CRUCIFIXION OF CHftlSTIANS IN JAPAN. 317 

my decree. I order and wish that they be crucified in my city of 
Nagasaki.^' 

The confiscation of the Spanish ship caused an envoy to be 
despatched from Manilla; Taiko^ in a cool and detmnined 
manner refused to make any restitution, and charged the Spaxiiards 
with acts of pira^ ; but at the same time guaranteed them free 
access into his kingdom to trade, proyided they had no mission* 
aries on board. 

The Japanese policy was not unlike that of the Chinese, 
as neither Emperors ever thought of banishing commerce, even 
when religious persecution, in both empires, was carried to the 
greatest extreme. The usual charge in all clmcal persecutions 
was brought against the Jesuits, ihat is, making riches subservient 
to their avocations, and an enquiry was set on foot by Taiko to 
ascertain their income. It appeared that the King of Portugal 
paid them between 800 and 1000 crowns per annum, and the 
authorities at Macao gave them a claim on the commerce to the 
extent of about eighty bags id silk out of every 1500 shipped to 
Japan. 

The contention between the Jesuits and the Dominicans, was 
settled in Europe by the Pope, who issued a bull, 1598, ordering 
no priest to go to Japan except through Macao, thus favouring 
the Jesuits. 

A.n. 1598. Taiko died this year, leaving an infant son to 
succeed him, but the throne was usurped by his guardian (Agosa* 
mat) Yie-y&*yeas, alias Gongon. 

The Spanish and Portuguese trade is r^resented as most pros- 
perous under this reign; the quantity of gold and silver received 
at Macao and Manilla is represented as two thousand chests of 
silver and gold to the value of several hundred thousand pounds. 

▲.D. 1607. A serious riot took place in Maeao, between the 
Portuguese and some Japanese sailors, in which uprwards of twenty 
of the latter were killed by the military. The governor of Macao, 
(Pessoa) repaired to Japan to represent the case to the Emperor. 
The Dutch took advantage of the dilemma in which the Portu- 
guese governor was placed, proposed to seize the Portuguese ship 
and hand her over to the governor of Nagasaki ; this baseness 
on the part of the Dutch was not immediately accepted by the Ja- 
panese authorities. While the Japanese authorities were deli- 
berating how to act, the Grovemor of Manilla was shipwrecked on 
the Japanese coast, and, being introduced at court, was asked if 
he could supply Japan with raw silk on as good terms and in as 
large quantities ; his reply, it is needless to say, was in the affirma- 
tive. The Japanese, on this assurance, did not hesitate a moment 
in deciding on the fate of the Governor of Macao, A.n. 1610. The 
Japanese destroyed the Portuguese ship, crew, and governor, which 
satisfied their revenge, and the Portuguese continued their trade. 

A.D. 1612. The governor of Mamlla purchased from the Em- 



318 JAPANSn DEBTAOY PEII8TS AND CHUECHE8. 

peror of Japan a veuel just built by Adams the English pilot, who 
was then in the service of the Emperori in which he proceeded on 
his journey, after entering into a treaty of commerce and obtaining 
permission to build ships in Japan. 

A.n. 1613, Brought a new era in Japan commerce; the English 
having obtained most favourable terms from the Emperor, made 
common cause against the Spanish and Portuguese. 

A.D. 1614. A fresh edict came forth to destroy the churches 
and banish the priests, which was partially followed up. The 
Emperor and usurper having a son and lawful heir growing to 
manhood, he resolved on putting him out of the way ; the Jesuits 
were in favour of the lawful heir; the usurper was successful, 
hence the priests received no favour. 

A.D. 1616. Oongon the Emperor died this year, leaving his son, 
Fide Fada, his successor, with instruction to banish the priests, 
which was fully carried into effect. The history of these times is 
silent as to the progress of commerce, but we have abundance of 
proof that it was fostered, in the privileges granted to King James 
of England. 

A.D. 1620. Fide Fada carried out the dying instructions of his 
fiather, and the constant persecutions against the priests were so 
great that not more than fifty were left in the whole empire. 
There is abundant evidence on record that the Dutch, in th^ 
desire to obtain a monopoly of the trade, aided in encouraging this 
persecution. 

A.D. 1624. Persecution was at its height; the Spaniards were 
finally banished for ever. New regulations were adopted, the 
Dutch were confined to the town of Firando, the Portuguese 
to Nagasaki; and restrictions were also laid on the Chinese and 
Coreans. 

A.D. 1627. The great object of the Japanese government was to 
prevent the introduction of priests; the foreign commerce was 
essential to their welfare, and particularly to the ports in which it 
was carried on ; a new plan was adopted, that would not check 
commerce, and still keep out priests. A Japanese agent was sent 
to reside at Macao, who kept a strict account of the number of 
passengers and crew of all the Portuguese vessels that set sail for 
Japan ; if any one of the number was not forthcoming on their 
arrival, restrictions were adopted on both captain and crew. 

It is melancholy to peruse the history of these times, as fiBiithfully 
related by Charlevaix, and to think that avarice had so overcome 
the once proud and noble Portuguese, that they permitted their 
fellow-subjects to be murdered in hundreds, without even the 
shadow of resistance. 

It was estimated that, previous to the final expidsion of the 
priests, there were about one million Christians in Japan. 

A.D. 1631. Fide Fada, died in this year, and was succeeded by 
his son, Yeye Mitsou; this monster aided his father in his cruelties 



PERSBCIJ^ON OF THE CHRISTIANS. 319 

dtirmg his lifetime. This Emperor caused an islet^ called Desima^ 
which closely joined the town of Nagasa-ki, to be drained and en- 
dosed : it is about 600 feet in length, and about 210 in breadth ; 
here the Portuguese factory was limited, and upwards of 50 guards 
and spies placed over them ; their wives and children were shipped 
off to Macao and Goa, although many of them were either native 
Japanese or descendants. "When their ships arrived, their fire-arms 
were given up to the governor, also their rudder, and none were 
permitted to walk the streets without a Japanese guard. In this 
reign (1635,) was introduced the most mortifying ceremony to 
Catholicism ; a brass cross of Christ and the Virgin Mary, was 
brought round to every house to have it trampled on. It is said 
to be continued annually, on the second day of the new year. 

A.D. 1635. The imports and exports of the Portuguese at this 
period, are represented as 2,142,365 taels; their connexion with 
Macao, giving them such facility of supplying the Japanese, with 
raw silk. But their intercourse was finally closed, by a discovery, 
or a pretended rumour, of an intended insurrection, of which the 
intelligence was brought by a Dutch vessel, that captured a Portu- 
guese ship, near the cape of Good Hope, on which were found the 
treasonable papers, implicating the Portuguese traders to Japan^ 
in connexion with some native Christians. The truth or 
falsehood of this charge, may be arrived at from a careful 
perusal of the Dutch intercourse. An edict was issued by the Japan* 
ese government, giving the Portuguese ten days to leave the empire, 
and a written notice declared that should a Portuguese ever 
be seen in Japan, he would be treated as a national enemy. In 
A.D. 1640, an embassy arrived from Macao, to endeavour to renew 
the trade ; they were asked, did they read the edict? — they answer- 
ed in the affirmative. They were put to death, and the crew sent 
home safe. 



ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF RUSSIAN INTERCOURSE 

WITH JAPAN. 

A.D. 1792. A Japanese junk was wrecked on the coast of 
Siberia. The Russian authorities shipped the crew on board one 
of their war-vessels, under the command of Captain Laxman. 

The captain put into the port of Matsmai, and landed the ship- 
wrecked crew ; the expression of thanks from the authorities there, 
and his friendly reception, induced him to make overtures for per- 
mission to trade. He was desired to sail to the port of Nagasaki, 
as the only place to which foreigners were admitted in the empire. 
The captain did not take advantage of this favourable proposal, 
and returned home. It is also probable that he was unprepared 
or unauthorised to negotiate. 



820 mVttlAN INTBBCOUR8I WITH JTAPAN. 



A.D. 18D4. Tliis year an embmmr, at the head of which was 
Count ReaonofFy arrived in the bay of Nagasaki^ in a Russian man- 
of-war. The embassy had a recommendation from the Dutch 
authorities at Batavia. 
The Japanese being aware of an ambassador being on boards de- 
nted from their usual oourse, in compliment to him ; commis- 
sioners were appointed to attend the ship and ask for a compliance 
with custom, viz., to send the fire-arms on shore as a deposit. 
The commissioners, being delegated from the Siogaun, claimed, as 
a matter of right, that the deference due to him should be paid to 
them ; this the Russians refused, as also to give up their fire-arms, but 
without hesitation they surrendered their ammunition. The vessel 
was permitted to come into harbour, with the intention of referring 
the disputed point to the Emperor at Jedo, a distance of 300 
leagues. The first few days, the Dutch and the Russians were at 
liberty to visit each other, but suspicion was awakened in the 
authorities, and a strict embargo was laid on visits, and even on 
correspondence. 

The Russian embassy, with a recommendation from. Batavia, 
were well aware of the conditions on which the Dutch were per- 
mitted to carry on their trade ; and if the same terms were offered^ 
were determined to reject them. The circumstance of the Russian 
soldiers being allowed to retain their arms, and the officers their 
swords, were favours which gave them an advantage over their 
Dutch friends. The interpreters requested that only a portion of 
the soldiers should go on shore, stating that the natives would be 
alarmed at seeing the soldiers of a foreign nation; this Count 
ResonoiF stoutly refused. The Russians were asked what mer- 
cfaancUse they could supply, if they were admitted to trade. A 
month had now elapsed, and no answer had been received from 
Jedo. The ambassador feigned illness, which had the desired 
effect, of getting his suite a space of ground one hundred paces 
long, and about forty wide, called Elibatch. This fortress was 
staked in with bamboos, and two wateh-houses erected, which 
commanded a view of the embassy. 

One of the Dutch ships leaving for Batavia, the ambassador was 
most anxious to write to his government : this was refused, unless 
the letter was first left unopened with the Japanese governor, and 
was to contain nothing but the announcement of his safe arrival. 
These Iiarsh terms were complied with, and the letter was trans- 
lated into the Dutch language ; the original and the copy were 
sent to the governor, who sealed it himself, and transmitted it on 
board, sending, at the same time, a message to take no notice of 
the Duteh vessel on her departure. 

The place selected for the embassy was close to the sea, so that 
they could communicate with the ship, by boats, when any of the 
officers wiihed to sleep on shore, or vice versA; the regular num- 



EXAMINATION OF RUSSIAN AMBASSADORS. 3#^1 

ber of the embassy permitted to be on shore was reqiiii?ed to be 
kept up. 

The boats requiring some repairs, permission was readily given, 
and materials, together with a strong guard over the ship-oarpen- 
ters, and ship-stores were punctually supplied, but no payment 
would be received. The ambassador made a request for suitable 
ground to make solar observations, but was refused. 

The authorities paid frequent visits, always asking the same 
questions over and over again, and always attended by fifteen or 
twenty (Yalks) interpreters. The first question invariably was, 
by what route they sailed, and particularly if they had come 
through the Straits of Corea, or along the east coast of Japan ? 
The authorities seemed well pleased that the latter course was 
taken. Some of the interpreters appeared to have a tolerable 
stock of geographical knowledge of every other country but their 
own. Nothing appeared to amaze them but the short time in 
which the embassy performed the distance between Kamtschatka 
and Nagasaki, viz., one month. 

The guard-boats, twenty in number, at all times surrounded 
the Russian ship : these guards are supplied by the Prince Fizen 
and the Prince of Tchingadzeen, each of whom has the same title 
in the town. 

November 13th. The Chinese junks having all sailed, the Rus- 
sian vessel was towed by upwards of 100 boats, and anchored 
between the imperial batteries, which are on the S.E. and N.W. 
sides of the harbour, distant from the town two miles, in fourteen 
fathoms of water. The Russian vessel requiring some general 
repairs, the authorities proposed to have the presents and other 
things in her placed in a Chinese junk (two of which are always 
left at Nagasaki as_^hostages) ; this proposal was declined. 

December 17th. The Prince of Pizen sent his boat to convey 
the embassy across the bay to the landing-place ; she was 120 feet 
long, and had magnificent fittings. 

March 12th. After waiting six months, an intimation was 
given the embassy, that the Emperor had sent a plenipotentiary 
(a spy) with the answer. 

The Dutch president's sedan was borrowed, to convey the am- 
bassador to the government-house to hear the Emperor's answer ; 
the remainder of the embassy walked. 

The answer was to this effect : That the Emperor of Russia had 
no right to send an embassy to Japan ; that in the letter given to 
Laxman, there was no mention made of an embassy ; and, that if 
they wished to trade only, why had they not sent for so many 
years : that if the Emperor of Japan received this embassy, he 
should send one in return, which was contrary to the laws ; and 
on no account was a Russian ship ever to come to Japan. Should 
any natives be ever driven on the Russian territory to have them 
conveyed to Batavia. 

T 



822 RUSSIAN HOSTILITIES AGAINST JAPANESE. 

Two months' proTisions for the ship were sent, for which no 
payment would be received, and presents were tendered to all the 
officers. 

The reception and treatment of the Russian ^mbassj is not to 
be wondered at, when it is recollected that, previous to their send- 
ing to Japim, the Russians had, from time to time, possessed 
themselves of several of the northern Kurile islands. The whole 
north and south archipelago being attached to the principality of 
Matsmai. 

The disappointed envoy, on his return home, was determined 
to gratify his resentful disposition. 

A.D. 1806. Resonoff despatched a hostile force to this island, 
well knowing that it was undefended. A carte-blanche was given 
to the commanders, Chiuostoff and Davidoff, to plunder, bum, and 
destroy the unoffending inhabitants, which orders were effectually 
carried out. The commanders, before leaving the island, left 
documents behind them, threatening Japan with further annoyance 
for rejecting Count Resonoff's friendly proposals. 

The Japanese authorities were at a loss to comprehend the mo- 
tive for this wanton and cruel act : the documents were readily 
translated, as the interpreters had gained some knowledge of the 
Russian language during the long stay of the embassy. The Dutch 
president is always consulted on emergencies of this kind, and he 
quieted their fears as to any ulterior intention of Russia. 

The Prince of Matsmai was declared incapable of defending his 
portion of the empire, or protecting his subjects, and from hence- 
forth his dominions have been converted into an imperial province, 
including Jezo and the Kuriles. 

A.D. 1810. The Russians sent Captain Golowin to explore the 
Japanese Sea, with instructions to lay down and note the Kurile 
islands that were inhabited by the Japanese. Some of the crew 
landed on the island of Elerpoo, or in some maps called Jetorap, 
on which there is a fortress. The commandant was met by Cap- 
tain Golowin, who excused himself by stating that they only 
wanted wood and water. The captain, on being reminded of the 
cruel act of his countrymen a few years previous, stated that his 
government were so displeased with the officers that they punished 
them with imprisonment. The commandant appeared perfectly 
satisfied with the account^ and, after entertaining the captain with 
great hospitality, gave him a letter of introduction to the com- 
mandant of a fortress, where the anchorage was safer, and wood 
and water more abundant. Golowin's subterfuge must have 
been quite apparent to the Japanese, as he took no advantage of 
the kind proposals. 

The frigate continued to sail about the islands for several weeks; 
and when really requiring water, anchored in the bay of Kurrashir, 
one of the most southern Kurile islands. The commandant ap- 
pearing satisfied with his excuse, permitted him to land, and im- 



AMBKICAK INTBRCOUI^i: WITH JAPAN. 828 

mediately made him a prisoner^ together trith the boat's crew, 
officers and all. They were conveyed to Matsmaii and there im- 
prisoned. 

With regard to the harsh treatment at one time^ and the great 
kindness evinced on other occasions^ it appears inconsistent^ and 
can only be accounted Ibr^ on one hand by the great responsibility 
of all Japanese officials ; on the other hand^ their kind and gener- 
ous disposition was evidenced after the captives attempted an 
escape. It was two years before a satisfactory disavowal of any 
hostilities arrived from Russia, and the prisoners were then sent 
home in their own firigate. We have no knowledge of any further 
intercourse between Russia and Japan. 



ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OP THE AMERICAN INTER- 
COURSE WITH JAPAN. 

(Voyage of the Ship "Morbison.") 

This half-missionary and half-mercantile attempt of some Ame^ 
rican merchants, residing in Canton, to open trade with Japan, 
was tried in the year 1837. 

It appears some Japanese sailors were shipwrecked on their own 
coast, and losing all command over their bark, were carried or 
drifted about for fourteen months, and at last were cast ashore 
near the Columbo River. Their situation became known to the 
superintendent of the Hudson^s* Bay Company, who kindly sent 
them to England ; from thence they were sent to China, and con- 
signed to the care of the superintendents of British trade, pre- 
suming that they would ultimately reach their homes. 

From the narrative given by Mr. King, an American merchant, 
who accompanied the vessel, (Morrison,) and his letters, which 
were written in the Chinese language, furnish the following facts : 

The ship (Morrison) sailed from Macao on the 4th July, and 
on the 11th reached the islands, known by the Japanese name of 
Madjicossima, or Eight Islands. This group lies between latitude 
24° and 25° north, and longitude 128° and 125° east, and distant 
from Loochoo, S.S.W., about 180 miles. The Japanese on boardy 
stated that the natives spoke the Japanese language, were few in 
numbers, and had little or no intercourse with Japan. 

July the 12th brought the G-reat Loochoo in sight ; anchored 
in Napa-keang, distant about one mile from the shore, and was 
visited in the course of the day by two boats from the shore ; the 
largest about 25 feet long, rather narrow, with both ends open, and 
paddled by natives, who were naked. The chief with some others 
came on board, asked the name of the ship, to what country she 

y2 



8S4 DKSCmiPTION OF LOOCHOO ISLANDS. 

bdottged, and the number of men on board; and the same day a 
Japanese jnnk left the harbour^ laden with 200 peculs of sugar, 
bound for Satzuma, a port in Japan, situated about 400 nules 
K.N.E. from Loochoo. The hull of this vessel was made of pine, 
the bow was sharp, without any bowsprit. The solitary mast was 
about forty feet high, and supported by a huge forestay, under 
which hung a yard, in form like two cones united at their bases ; 
this was raised by halliards passing over the top of the masts aft to 
the quarters, where they went over a sort of windlass, and then 
round a capstan below deck. The sail was made of coarse cotton, 
and the bolts were laced together with cords; several ropes secured 
it in its proper place. There was no stempost, and the cabin was 
consequently exposed to view. The rudder was about fifteen feet 
long and eight broad, with a tiller like a spankerboom, reaching 
forward nearly to the mast. The long-boat was lashed athwart the 
vessel, near the bow, the ends projecting over each side about five 
feet. The stem was high out of water, and the name of the vessel 
was painted thereon, in Chinese characters. The capstan stood in 
the cabin. Every part of her was clean and orderly ; her sides fell in 
above the water-mark, and she was rudely, although strongly, 
built. The crew numbered about fifteen men. 

Oreat Loochoo contains about 900 square miles, being 60 miles 
long by 15 broad, and comprises 35 departments, and upwards of 
860 smaller districts, which makes the average size of each about 
two square miles and six-tenths. Agriculture is conducted on the 
tame plan as in China, and most of the labour is done by hand. 
Two kinds of millet, sweet potatoes, and rice are the usual crops ; 
besides every kind of common vegetables, melons and fruits are 
abundant. Sugar forms the principal article of export; grass 
cloth, and cotton fabrics appeared to be worn by every class. 

In answer to the question, did tea or silk grow on the island, 
they answered no; but the contrary is believed. The Loochoo, 
like the Kuriles, are not permitted to have any kind of arms or 
aJBmunition. 

K Napa-keang were made a free port, junks from the adjacent 
coasts of China and Luconia would flock to it. It is the only 
foreign port where the vessels of China and Japan can meet. 

The Loochoo group is situated betwee\i 26° and 27° of north 
latitude, and between 126° 60' and 128° 20^ east longitude; 
comprising an area of about 5000 square miles ; and numbering 
probably twenty islands, of which Great Loochoo is much larger 
than any of the others. Napa-keang lies due east of Fuhchow-foo 
in Fookeen, about 400 miles, and is nearly that distance S.S.W. 
of Nagasaki, where the Dutch trade with Japan is carried on. 
Mount Onnadake, rising 1000 feet, is the highest peak of the range 
of hills which runs through the island lengthwise ; Mount Sumar, 
on which the capital is built, is 540 feet high. The population of 
all the islands is estimated at from 60,000 to 80,000. Their Ian- 



VOYAGE FROM LOOCHOO TO JAPAN. 835 

gna^e is a dialect of the Japanese^ easily nnderstood by the latter 
people, yet containing more words derived from the Chinese, than 
from the Japanese. 

July 16th. The Morrison left the Loochoo islands, and was ten 
days approaching the coast of Japan, aided most of the way by a 
powerful current. 

July 27th. The Morrison was in sight of the southern point o£ 
the principality Tootomi, called Chana-saki, a bluff headland. The 
current carried her rapidly past this ; and the high point of Irosaki^ 
the southern extremity of the principality of Izu, was seen. Soon 
after, the chain of islands that extend from the S.B. corner of 
Nipon appeared in sight, which, with Irosaki, form the way-marks 
or passage up the bay of Jedo. 

The coast of Nipon presents a magnificent gallery of motm- 
tains, rising from the abrupt and indented shore in an irregular 
gradation into lofty peaks, until the summit of Mount Fusi, at the 
estimated height of 14,000 feet, ended the series. The mountain 
appeared about 40 miles distant, and resembled, towards its sum- 
mit, the roof of a house with its gable end towards the sea. 

The southern extremity of the principality of Izu, in its oblong 
peninsula form, resembling Yucatan, in Gautemala, is a bold pro- 
montory. The southern cape is remarkable for a white bluff, off 
which lies a large rock. About two miles from this cape, in a 
southerly direction, is a small naked rock, not laid dovm in the chart, 
forming a serious danger in the navigation up the bay of Jedo. 
As the ship approached the land, there were forty or fifty junks 
observed of many sizes, from a smack up to a junk of 200 or 300 
tons. During the day, though opposed by a north-easterly wind, 
the ship gradually advanced into the bay, still aided by the power- 
ful current : when night came on, fires were observed burning on 
several eminences, which is the mode of conveying intelligence to 
the capital. 

July 30th. The Morrison was not far south of Mi-saki, or 
Cape Sagami, the southern point of the principality of the same 
name, and which also forms the western point of the entrance ta 
the bay of Jedo. 

The bay of Jedo is a large estuary, between thirty and forty 
miles wide at its entrance, and extending thirty miles north, at 
nearly a uniform width, up to Mi-saki. This is the southerly 
point of a small peninsula, forming part of the principality of Sa- 
gami, at its entrance being about twenty miles wide. 

Mi-saki and Su-saki, (or Cape Su,) both very prominent head- 
lands, lying from each other nearly N.E. and S.W., twelve or fif- 
teen miles apart, form the entrance to the bay of Jedo, at the 
north end of which the capital stands, forty miles from Su-saki. 

About twelve o'clock the distant report of guns was first heard, 
and many reasons but the right one were assigned, until the balls 
began to fall about, half-a-mile ahead of the ship. The gun^ were 



8M AXKRICAN BBCBPTIUN AT JBDO. 

■tstioned on the pomt at the entrance of the harbour; Imt were 
fired from the oppoaite aide of the bay ; — ^between them waa a dis- 
tance of five or six miles* There was no danger firom the metal of 
their guns, as the channel was sufficiently wide to keep out of 
their reach. There were twenty iathoms water in mid-channel, 
gradually sloping towards either side ; the Morriscoi anchored in 
seven fathoms, and the firing oeased. 

The harbour of Uragawa, where the Morrison intended to 
anchor, is on the western side of the bay, and is the anchoring 
place for all vessels before going to Jedo. Sixteen ri (23 miles) 
above this is Shinagawa, where aU vessels unlade and receive cargo, 
it is only one ri firom Jedo. The native^ on board, stated that he 
had seen seventy or eighty vessels arrive and depart in one day. 
The Morrison anchored about three T,^., and soon after boats began 
to approach the ship. The majority of the natives were thmly 
dad ; a piece of doth was wound round their loins, or a loo»e gown 
secured at the waist by a girdle, some wore quilted cotton jackets. 
In the general cast of their ooimtenances, they differed consider- 
ably fix)m the Chinese, while the points of resemblance indicated 
their connection with the Mongolian race. In their oblong, 
sunken, and angular eyes, they were like the Chinese ; but tlmr 
short necks, snub-noses, high cheekbones, and inferior stature, 
approximated rather to the Corean and Kunle, than to. the sons of 
Han. The majority were large-limbed men. 

Not knowing the impression which the fact of having natives 
of Japan on board would have, it was thought best to conceal 
them, until the proper officer should come on board, and allow the 
shipwrecked men to tell their own story. One man, who was 
thought to be an offidaJ, came on deck with an air of great dis- 
dain *, but after partaking of refreshment he became more friendly. 
This person soon returned after taking a glance of the vessel, and 
receiving a request for an officer. The visitors were very nume- 
rous of both sexes, and all manifested friendly feelings, partaking 
of the refireshments offered them, enquiring the business of the 
Morrison, and invited Mr. King and others to go on shore and 
ramble. They appeared greatly surprised at the ignorance in not 
comprehending their eloquence. 

July 31st. Towards four o'clock in the morning, the MorriaoD 
was saluted by a cannon-ball whistling over the ship, succeeded by 
three others. This movement caused Uie Morrison to hoist a white 
flag, in order to induce some one to w^ne on board. No heed was 
given to the signals ; and the firing continuing, the crew began to 
weigh anchor and make sail. There was sixty &thom of cable run 
out, and only sixteen hands on board, which caused the men to be 
exposed to the firing for an hour. 

The manner of serving the guns was unskilful, some of the shot 
going over the mast-head, and others falling half-way between the 
shore and the ship. 



JAPANESE DISGUISE THSI& INTENTIONS. 3S7 

Having sailed out of reach of their guns, the ship was followed 
by some gun-boats, with about thirty men in each, who bore down 
ou her, firing swivels at the ship with great activity. 

When fairly off in the stream^ the ship lay-to for them to ap- 
proach, but they soon returned. 

By a consultation with the natives on board, it was decided to 
make for Kagosima, the chief port of Satsuma, the southern divi- 
sion of the island of Kinsin, and the residence of one of the most 
powerM and least dependent of the feudal princes. 

August 8th. Cape D^Anvelle, on the eastern coast of Kiusiu, 
came in sight. The morning of the tenth brought the Morrison 
to the fine bay of Kagosima; the scene which now opened to the 
view was surpassing grandeur itself, in scenery and cultivatipn. 

Miabbna is the anchoring-place for all junks destined for Ka- 
gosima. Here two of the shipwrecked Japanese proceeded to a 
tillage, and having' told their tale, a village officer came on board. 

The visitor bore on his blue gown the arms of the Prince of 
Satsuma, a white ring, an inch and a half in its exterior diameter, 
enclosing a white square, the angles of which touching the inner 
edge of the ring, left within the circle four small segments only of 
the blue ground-colour. This proved that the eastern, as well as 
the western side of the Bay of Kagosima, is the territory of the 
Prince of Satsuma. 

A packet was prepared for the prince, in which was detailed 
the attack on the Morrison at Jedo, and a request for liberty to 
trade, and also to land the shipwrecked natives : this document was 
taken on shore by the visitor, who promised a speedy answer. The 
ship proceeded to the opposite side of the bay, under the direction 
of a boatman, who had been officially assigned as pilot. 

Thevillage of Chugemutsi, in front of which the Morrison lay, 
stands on the narrow cliff about forty feet above the tide, and as 
far bdow the level of a rich and beautifully cultivated tract which 
str^ches for miles to the north and west, interspersed with groves 
and orchards, every spot in high cultivation. 

As soon as the ship anchored, a boat came from the village to 
aanounce that a high officer would be sent on the following day ; 
at the same time some water was sent in a boat fitted up ap- 
pairently for that purpose, with a great profusion of copper in the 
shape of ornaments, &c. 

August 12th. A slight warning was given by a fisherman, who 
said it would be better to be off; and that if the ship wanted to 
trade, it had better go to Nagasaki. Soon after this monition, a 
erow^ was seen busily employed on the heights above the village ; 
but their actions were hid by long bands of striped cloth. By 
way of preparing for the worst, the yards of the slup were hoisted 
without loosing the sails, and the cable was hove short. 

On the Japanese being consulted, their opinion of the pacific 
intentions of their countrymen was unfavourable; the ship was 



StS T&SAOHBBT TOWARDS THB AMKRIOANSr 

brought ont of range, and the anchor then dropped again. The 
moment the topsails wefe let fall fiom the yards^ a crowd of men 
carrying flags, and headed by officers on horseback, were observed; 
and immediately a fire opened on the Morrison fix>m behind the 
striped mask. The guns being much higher than those used at 
Jedo, all their shot fell in the water far short of the ship. 

Leaving the triumphant assailants to rejoice oyer their easy 
victory, the ship was steered for the port of Nagasaki, as a last 
resort. It was subsequently discussed with the Japanese on board, 
who, anxious as they were for their native land, preferred returning 
to being left to the mercy of the government of that place ; so it 
was decided that they should return to Macao with the Morrison, 
and for the future, work for their support. 

The following documents were sent on shore to the Japanese 
authorities : — 

^' The American merchant. King, respectfully addresses His 
Imperial Majesty on the subject of the return of seven of Ms ship- 
wrecked subjects. He is come to this honourable country from 
Cap-shuy-moon in China, in a ship of three masts, called the 
' Morrison,^ having on board a physician and a naturalist, &c., &c. 

" Three of the shipwrecked men which he has brought with 
him, are natives of the village of Ono-oura ; their names, ' Ewa,* 
aged thirty-three ; ' Kioko,' twenty-one ; ' Oto,^ nineteen. They 
left Owari in November, 1830, in a rice junk for Jedo, and meet- 
ing with a great tempest, lost their mast and reckoning, and 
drifted fourteen months on the wide ocean. Their eleven com- 
panions sickened and died, and they three only remained alive, 
when their junk was thrown on shore in a country called Columbia, 
belonging to America. Some hunters in that country kindly took 
care of them, and sent them in a ship to China, where they Uved 
nineteen months. The good people there, remembering the word 
of Mencius, ' that he who does not rescue the shipwrecked, is worse 
than the wolf,^ took care of them until an opportunity might offer 
for their return to their native country again. - 

" The other four shipwrecked men are natives of diflferent 
villages in the island Kiusiu ; * Chijo,' aged twenty-eight i ' Yus- 
aboroe,' twenty-five ; * Cumatoroo,^ twenty-eight. They left a port 
in the island of Amakusa, in 1834, bound to Nagasaki, but were 
driven ofiF in a tyfiing, and after drifting thirty-five days, were cast 
ashore in a country called Takarobo. 

'^ Now I, seeing the distressed condition of these men, have 
brought them back to their own country, that they may again be- 
hold their aged parents. Bespectfally submitting this statement, 
1 request that an officer may be sent on board to receive them — to 
hear the foreign news — ^to inspect the register of my vessel— to 
grant supplies, and permission to trade. I also request, if there 
be any shipwrecked Americans in your country, that they may be 
given Up to me.'' 



* APPKAL TO JAPANBfiS GOOD FJB£UKaS. 8|S9 

TVanslation of Second Paper. 

^' America lies to the east of your honourable country^ distant 
two months^ voyage. Its western parts are not yet cleared^ but 
are still inhabited by savage tribes. On its eastern side^ where 
the people are civilized^ and from which we come^ it is separated 
from England and Holland by a wide ocean. Hence^ it appears 
that America stands alone^ and does not border upon any other of 
the nations known to the Japanese. The population of America 
is not greats though the country is extensive. Two hundred years 
ago^ it was entirely inhabited by savages ; but at that time^ Eng- 
lish^ Dutch^ and other nations went there^ and estabhshed colonies. 
Their descendants increased gradually, and sixty-two years ago 
they chose their first President, named Washington. That high 
office is now filled by the eighth president. Within the space of 
sixty-two years, America has been twice invaded ; but its people 
have never attacked other countries, nor possessed themselves of 
foreign territory. The American vessels sail faster than those of 
other nations, traversing every sea, and informing themselves of 
whatever passes in every country. If permitted to have inter- 
course with Japan, tfiey will communicate always the latest intel- 
ligence. 

" The laws of America are just and equitable, and punishment 
is only on the guilty. God is worshipped by every man according 
to his conscience, and there is perfect toleration of* all religions. 
We ourselves worship the God of Peace, respect our superiors, and 
live in harmony with one another. Our countrymen have not yet 
visited your honourable country, but only know that in old times 
the merchants of all nations were admitted to your harbours. 
Afterwards, having transgressed the laws, they were restricted or 
expelled. Now, coming for the first time^ and not having done 
wrong, they request permission to carry on a friendly intercourse 
on the ancient, footing." 



ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF CHINESE INTERCOURSE 

WITH JAPAN. 

B. c. 100. The Chinese chronicles record embassies with tri- 
bute about this time. 

A. D. 600. The intercourse and friendship between these con- 
tiguous empires^ at this period was conducted with mutual good- 
will, which continued until the Mongols obtained the. throne of 
China. 

Although it was under the pretence of protecting Corea> that the 
Chinese government frequently made war on Japan, sovereignty 
was evidently their intention from a remote period. It is on re- 



880 CHINBU INTXACOUB8B WITH JAPAN. 

cord that before, or about the beginning of the Christian era, a 
miflsion was sent from the Emperor of Chinas appointing the heir 
to the Japanese throne, a Wang, (king) of Nippon (J^wn). This 
phm was adopted whenever a civil war raged in that country. 
Corea, it appears was the battle-field, as it was considered a ie» 
pendent or ally of both empires. 

The following is from Nipponki, a Japanese Encyclopedia, pub- 
lished in 1795. 

A. D. 659. An acconnt of an embassy from Japan to China, as 
given in Japanese works, and written by a Corean, is called a jour- 
nal of Ynkino Murasi of Petsi. The ambassadors were, Irasiki, 
Kisa, and Murari. They brought with them two native Yeozites, 
to show his Celestial Majesty a specimen of savages. The narrator 
says : — '' We arrived at the eastern capital of China, and were pre- 
sented to the Emperor. The questions that he put to our ambas* 
sadors and their answers were as follows : — 

''Does the Divine Autocrat enjoy constant repose? — Heaven 
and earth unite to shower blessings upon him, and constant repose 
follows of course. 

'' Are the officers of the kingdom well appointed and pros- 
perous? — Does internal tranquillity prevail? — The manner of go- 
verning is in unison with heaven and earth, and the people 
have no anxieties. 

" Where lie the countries of these Yezoites ? — ^To the north-east. 
''How many kinds of them are th^re? — ^Three; the most 
remote of these are called Tsugaru, the next Arayezo, (the un- 
tamed) and those nearest to us Niki-yezo, (the boiled down) ; these 
are Niki-yezoites. Yearly they bring tribute to our court. 

" Does their cotintry produce com ? — No ; the inhabitants lire 
upon animal food I 

" Have they houses ? — ^No ; they dwell under the trees in the 
mountains. 

" On the first of the eleventh month, there was a great assembly 
at court, to celebrate the festival of the winter solstice; we were 
invited thither, and ours was the most numerous of all the fordgn 
missions; we were not invited again. Two of our people seta 
house on fire, which was the cause of much annoyance to us. They 
were punished with exile* On the first of the twelfth month it 
was announced to us that we could not be permitted to return to 
our home in the east, as the resolution had been taken to impose 
laws upon our countrymen, on the east of the sea^ the following 
year. 

" We were takaa to the western capital, and there kept in close 
eustody . In this hard condition we passed the greater part of the 
year. In the eighth month of the year ELing-shin, (660) Petsi 
(Corea) was conquered; and on tilie twelfth of the ninth month 
we w^e set at liberty. On the nineteenth we quitted the western 
for the eastern capital, which we reached on the sixteenth of the 



CHINESE TRY TO SUBDUE JAPANESE. 881 

tenth months and there met our coantrymen and coIl6i^;ne8, who 
had escaped with their boat to China. Upon the first of the 
eleyenth month, came a detachment from the army, with the cap* 
tive King of Petsi, and about thirty persons. We were again 
presented at court, and then sent home/^ 

A. D. 1279. An extract from a letter sent by Kublai Khan, the 
first Emperor of this grasping dynasty, is illustrative of their wily 
policy. 

'' The sages considered the whole world as one family ; but if all 
the members have not a friendly intercourse, how can it be said 
that the principle of one family is maintained V* 

The Corean embassy travelled with the Chinese on this occasion, 
but neither of them were admitted. Four more embassies were 
sent from China in this reign with no better success. The next 
embassy dispatched was supported by an armament of 15,000 men, 
who plundered the Japanese coast and then returned to China. 

A. n. 1286. Notwithstanding these repulses, an embassy was 
sent from China this year, with a large retinue, the whole of whom 
were slfdn by the Japanese. This decided the course of Kublai Khan, 
who sent an army of 100,000 men to conquer the empire. They 
landed safely on the northern coast, but a dreadful storm scattered 
and destroyed their vessels ; out of this immense armament only 
five vessels ever returned to China. 

A. J>. 1370. The Ming, i. e. the native Chinese, having obtained 
possession of their throne, and suffering severely from the predatory 
attacks of the Japanese on the coast, ventured an embassy to re* 
monstrate and renew the friendly intercourse; the long wished for 
homage was gently hinted at, in the ambassador's speech to the 
Emperor of Japan : — 

*' I am not an envoy from the Tartars, but from the sacred 'son 
of heaven,' the holy and divine Emperor ; if you choose to rebel 
against him, and disbelieve me, you may first kill me to prevent the 
subsequent calamity that will overtake you ; but the army of my 
sovereign is heaven's army, of which there is not one man but ia 
able to withstand a hundred enemies ; the ships of my sovereign 
are able singly to fight a hundred Tartar vessels. Where the 
decree of heaven is, what human power is there that can oppose 
it ?" This speech had the desired effect, and the embassy was well 
received. 

A.D. 1376. Hungwoo, the Chinese Emperor, sent a priest of 
Budha to Japan; the obj^ of sending a priest was, '^ to command 
the nation to venerate that religion.'' The ancient and royal law 
of *' universal benevolence to all, whether remote or near at hand" 
was strongly impressed on the Japanese. 

A.n. l'^^. Yung-loo sent an embassy to Japan, with a view of 
purchasing some of the manufactures of that empire; he waa well 
received on his entrance, but a dtange took place, and he had a 
narrow escape for his liife. The subsequent embassies to Japan 



882 E1IBA88IB8 FROM CHINA TO JAPAN. 

were numerous daring the Ming Dynasty, to represent the ravages 
of Japanese pirates, but no hostile proceedings, were ever taken to 
suppress them ; and ever since, Japan has boldly resisted the de- 
grading vassalage that China has forced ou her less powerful 
neighbours. 

During the Ming Dynasty, the Japanese pirate were a constant 
source of annoyance to the Chinese government, but the commer- 
cial intercourse was carried from a more remote period. 

In 1539, the Japanese sent an ambassador to Ningpo, to 
conclude a treaty of peace and commerce. The reception and 
treatment given to the envoy was so bad, that the former ill-feeling 
was renewed. The Japanese ruling-passion is revenge, which 
they gave vent to on this occasien, but were driven to their ships, 
and retired after an agreement was entered into, that henceforth 
only three vessels should come annually to China, and their crews 
not come on shore. As the Japanese at that time traded to all 
the islands on the eastern coast, smuggling was resorted to with 
the Chinese. 

Silk was an article in great demand in Japan, and the Emperor 
and Princes frequently sent vessels, with the precious metals, to 
purchase a cargp. 

On one of these occasions, that a royal cargo was required, the 
supercargo paid for his goods before they were delivered, and as 
usual, the Chinese cheated him out of his money; failing to obtain 
redress, he made good his loss by plundering the first Chinese 
goods he met with. The next year a large body of Japanese 
besieged Shan-tung, and made their way to the Yangtzekang, 
penetrated as far as Nanking and Suchau, turned south to Che- 
kcang, where they took several places, and everywhere committed 
great ravages. They became masters of Chusan, and then laid 
siege to Nanking, but were beaten oif by an army that was led 
on by a female. 

In A.D. 1672, a division of the Chinese fleet, consisting of 
forty-seven junks, with two thousand men on board, landed on the 
coast of Tsukusi (Fizen). They had previously given the Prince 
of Tsuzima notice of their coming, that they might not be deemed 
enemies. Upon their landing, they put on mourning-garments 
for the death of the Mikado, (Spiritual Emperor of Japan) and 
took upon themselves the performance of an homage-ceremony to 
his successor, by bowing towards the rising sun. They were 
collectively presented with silk-stuiFs, and soon afterwards set 
sail again. 

A.D. 1684. The first restriction laid on the Chinese trade was 
this year, when upwards of 200 of their junks arriving with 50 
men in each, the authorities became alarmed, as the Tartars were 
on the Chinese throne, instead of the " Son of Heaven. '' The 
Chinese were prohibited from visiting the capital, and limited to 



RESTRICTIONS ON CHINESE AT JAPAN. . 383 

twelve junks^ and an augmentation of the duties hitherto charged 
was imposed on the Chinese. 

A.D. 1780. The Chinese were subjected to new restrictions this 
year. The number of junks was further limited^ and an old tem- 
ple was prepared for them^ in which they were to carry on their 
trade; the annual rent of the temple charged them was 16,000 
taels, and the duties charged on their imports were 60 per cent. 
Their imports consisted of sugar, tin plates, ivory, lead, woollen 
cloths, and green tea (for the nobles.) Exports from Japan, cop- 
per, (in bars) camphor, lackered wares, umbrellas, dye fish, (a 
favourite medicine) salt fish, and a peculiar muscle, that will keep 
good for years. 

The Chinese are permitted to trade only at Nangasaki, but their 
number is limited, and seldom exceeds 100, who are under the con- 
trol of head-men. There is an enclosure ^et apart for them ; but, 
unlike the Dutch, they are allowed to go about the streets of Na- 
gasaki. 

The Chinese factory is divided, by narrow streets, into twelve 
buildings, and may contain about 150 dwellings and stores. 

The number of junks licensed to trade is seven, which make 
two voyages annually. When the Chinese arrive in Nagasaki, 
their junks are unloaded by the Japanese, and when the tide will 
permit are drawn on shore until their time of departure; but 
otherwise they have several privileges. 

The national antipathy of the Japanese to the Chinese is very 
great, and said to arise from their treatment to the fair sex. 

During the Russian embassy^s long stay in Japan, Captain 
Krusestirn was enabled to discover the degrading terms on which 
the subjects of the Chinese empire are permitted to trade. 

Two Chinese junks are left always in Japan, it is supposed as 
hostages. One of these junks was oflfered to the Russian Mission 
to reside in. — See abstract of Russian intercourse with Japan. 

The Chinese imports are broad-cloths, and various other woollen 
stuffs. Their exports, biche-de-mer, copper, lackered ware. 

The door-keepers, interpreters, &c., are appointed by the go- 
vernment. They are not permitted to visit the Emperor at Yedo. 

The preceding details amply shew that we have only to blame 
ourselves for our exclusion from Japan. Since 1841, I have been 
urging a mission to Japan on Her Majesty^s government; and 
when our large fleet was quitting Nankin, I ventured to entreat 
Lord Aberdeen to permit its distinguished chief, Sir William Parker, 
to visit the court of Japan. The appearance of such a squadron 
would have ensured respect, and accomplished, pacifically, a com- 
mercial intercourse. It is to be hoped that the facts contained in 
the preceding pages, will at length induce Her Majesty^s govern- 
m^it to carry this important object into efiect. 

Our government are justified in taking measures for re-opening 



8S4 mnrcH iNTmtouM aoaivst iiroLfftH. 

the oommereud intereonne we had with Japan, two centimes ago ; 
on the basis of the treaty* I recently discovered, (see page 298) which 
authorises ns still to maintain this intercourse. The preceding 
report was laid before Her Mnesty's ministerSj in the hope the 
attempt would now be made. It appears that the French goyem- 
ment sent Admiral Cedlle to Japan last year, but he has not been 
fayourably receiyed ; and the Parisian journal, " La Pressed* assigns 
the following reason for the rejection of French intercourse. If 
this statement be correct, I haye no doubt that the Japanese go- 
yemment haye been induced to make this declaration of continued 
exehtsian to all but the Dutch, The details in chapters yii. and viii. 
preye that China has not '' enjoyed a durable peace by the exdusion 
of foreigners;'' that in truth the exclution of foreigner$ was not a 
" fimdamenial policy qf the Chinese en^re** but arose out of the 
intolerant, suspicious, and tyrannic despotism of the Tartar 
usurpers of Chma, within the last two centuries. The abstract 
narratiyes of the intercourse of different nations with Japan at 
an early period, until dissensions, jealousy, and exclusion were 
prompted, fomented, and accomplkhed by the Dutch, are at yari- 
ance with the ** reasoning'' put forth in this document for the 
'' faculty of trading with Japan" granted to the Dutch. The 
statement is indeed one of the usual diplomatic intrigues of the 
Hollanders, and which at this moment the French would probably 
not be unwilling to countenance, — ** La Pressed* says, 

'' The yoyage of Bear-Admiral Cecille to Japan, and the re- 
ception which the French squadron there met with, is in part ex- 
plained by a yery remarkable fact, of which we had heard before 
the arriyal of the last mail from the Red Sea, but which appeared 
to us to need confirmation. It is now ayerred that a short time 
before the conclusion of the peace between England and China, in 
1843, the King of the Netherlands addressed to the Emperor of 
Japan a friendly letter, haying for object the abolition, in that 
distant kingdom, of the exclusiye system practised for the last 
three centuries with respect to foreigners. His Mdesty enume- 
rated with much detail, the events which haye forced the Chinese 
empire to midtiply in spite of itself, its points of contact with all 
nations of the world ; and inferred from this new state of things^ 
that as Japan, from the yiciuity of Hong Kong and Chusan, could 
not escape a similar fate, it would be prudent to anticipate a crisis 
by means of concessions which would satisfy Europeans and pre- 
vent all unfriendly collision with them. As a natural consequence 
of this prudent course, the King of the Netherlands engaged his 
conmny the Emperor of Japan, to extend to all foreign flags the 
faculty, hitherto enjoyed by the Dutch exclusively, of trading with 
Nangasaki, and further to open on the same general footing two 
or three other ports, either the great island of Niphon, or an island 
of Yesso. The letter was sent in the original to M. Beck, the 

• The Japanese scrupulously fulfil the engageroents of their ancestors. 



IMPOLITIC DUTCH MONOPOLY AT JAPAN. 385 

chief of the Dutch factory at Nangasaki, who succeeded, after 
some difficulties of form, in having it conveyed to Jeddo^ the seat 
of the court. It is very rare for the communications of the Dutch 
to be placed under the eyes of the Emperor ; they are regarded as 
too unimportant for the leisure of so great a potentate ; on this 
occasion^ however, the question appeared to be of too grave a 
nature for the ministers to take upon themselves the responsibility 
of a solution, and M. Beck obtained the certitude that the letter 
of his sovereign had reached the Japanese monarch. Two years 
passed without any reply being given* It had been remarked, 
that on several points of the coast the most open to a landing, 
more activity than formerly was displayed in the work of fortifi- 
cation; but this was generally attributed to a belief of the Japa- 
nese that several English vessels, which had been driven into these 
latitudes by storms, were come to invade the country. At length, 
however, the Emperor of Japan has sent to the King of the 
Netherlands a reply, of which the following is the substance : — ' I 
have watched with attention the events which have brought about 
a fundamental change in the policy of the Chinese Empire ; and 
these very events, upon which you base the advice which you give 
me, are for me the most evident proof that a kingdom can never 
enjoy a durable peace without the rigorous exclusion of all foreign- 
ers. If China had never permitted the English to establish them- 
selves on a large scale at Canton, and to take root there, either the 
quarrels which caused war would not have taken place, or the 
English would have found themselves so weak that they would 
have at once sunk in the conflict. But from the moment when 
China allowed herself to be touched on one point she rendered 
herself vulnerable on others. This was the reasoning of my great 
ancestor when he granted you the faculty of trading with Japan, 
and, but for the proofs of friendship which you had frequently 
given to our country, it is certain that you would have been ex- 
eluded, as all the nations of the west have been. Now that you 
are in possession of this privilege, I am willing that you should 
continue to enjoy it ; but I will take care not to extend it to any 
other nation, for it is earlier to maintain a dyke in good preserva- 
tion, than to prevent the enlargement of the breaches which are 
permitted in it. I have given orders to my officers in consequence, 
and the future will prove to you that our policy is wiser than that 
of the Chinese Empire.' " 

It is impolitic of the British nation to permit the Dutch to 
continue their existing monopoly of the Japanese trade ; we have 
already suffered enough by their artful interpretation of the treaty 
of 1824 relative to the Eastern Archipelago. Our treaty with 
Japan, of 1613, is still in full force, and it is for the interest of 
the Japanese people, as well as for that of the western nations, 
that Japan and China be opened for perfect freedom of intercourse 
and commerce. The administration that accomplishes this useful 
measure will perform a great good to millions of mankind. 



M§ »BaORIPTION OF COESAN MNIN8UI^< 



CHAPTER X. 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND COREA, 
TIBET, COCHIN-CHINA, SIAM, AND BURMAH, 



The relation in which the Oovemment of China stands to the 
oontiguoufl Asiatic States, is an interesting subject for examina- 
tion, especially at the present period^ when the attention o{ 
Europe is so generally directed towards Asia, and when the force of 
circumstances is daily bringing ns more and more in contact 
with countries of vast extent, with myriads of inhabitants, possessed 
of comparatiyely great wealth, and capable of being brought within 
the adyantageous pale of active commercial intercourse. To begin 
with the admirably situated Corean Peninsula (see map.) 

Corea is called by the natives, Coali, in feudal relations with 
the Tartars, previous to their conquest of China, and still 
continues so with the Chinese Empire. It extends from 84 
to 44 degrees of north latitude, and (estimating 15 leagues 
to a degree) is 150 leagues in length, from N. to S. and about 
75 leagues in breadth, from E. to W. By some accounts the 
length of the kingdom &om N. to S. is 450 miles English, 
and the breadth from E. to W. 300. The length of the sea- 
coast is estimated at 1500 miles. There are several long capes 
or headlands running into the sea. On the N. E. it bounds the 
ocean, and on the W . is separated from China by the Bay of Nan- 
king, but is joined to it on the N. by a long high mountain; 
towards the S.E. it bounds the Japanese empire ; there are but 
twenty-five leagues distance between the city of Pousan in Corea, 
and the city of Osacia in Japan. Between the two cities, is the 
island of Tuissima, i.e. Taymutto, which the Coreans ceded to the 
Japanese for a portion of the Quelpart. The capital of Corea, 
Hanchinffy in latitude 36° N. and 16° E. from Peking, is said to 
be distant three months^ journey by land from Peking. When 
the Yellow Sea is frozen over, the Coreans can walk across it to 
China. 

Provinces of Corea. Hien-king province is situated on the 
north-east quarter of the Peninsula of Corea, stretching along the 
Japan Sea ; the coast is bleak and inhospitable, except at the ex- 
tremity, where it is divided from the country of the Mantchous, 
by a large river, on the banks of which are several large towns. 
The land here is cultivated with care. Smuggling, under the 
guise of pearl-fishing, is extensively practised. 




J.& C.WaDur SaOpf 



OEOOBAPHY OF COBBAN PBOVINCES. 897 

2iid. Ping-neon province forms the north-west side of Corea. 
This province and that of Hien-king lie to the north of the 
Peninsula^ and constitute a portion of the great continent of 
Asia. It is bounded on the west by the gulf of Leautong^ in 
China Proper, and on the south by the Yellow Sea, or Corean gulf. 
The river Yalow runs through this province, and disembogues 
into the Yellow Sea; it is navigable upwards of ninety miles. The 
province is said to be very populous, and highly cultivated. 

3rd. Ketang-yuen province, lies on the north-east side of the 
Peninsula, and stretches along the sea of Japan. This province is 
composed or intersected with a number of small islands, some of 
which are inhabited by fishermen, who carry on a lucrative trade 
with the neighbouring countries, in cured fish. The climate is salu- 
brious, and the province thickly populated, by the only hardy war- 
like population in the kingdom. The inhabitants of this province, 
in former years, fought many hard battles with the Japanese. 
Timber, ginseng, and paper are its chief products. 

4th. Haong-hai province stretches along the coast of the Yellow 
Sea, northward, as far as the river Yalaw ; and southward for a 
space of 200 miles. It has several large islands, two of which are 
called Tsiao-tang, and Tsiang-hoo ; the latter takes its name from a 
large city, which was formerly the capital of the kingdom, and in 
the possession of the Mahans, or better known as the Hans, a 
warlike tribe. The province is fiat and fruitful, is very populous, 
contains several large cities,' and has manufactures of different 
sorts. 

5th. King-ki is the only inland province in the kingdom, and 
being situated in its centre, is selected as the residence of the 
King, who has three palaces in this province. From north to 
south it is estimated at 200 miles in extent, and from east to west, 
at nearly 100 miles. This province is not inferior to any in China, 
in its appearance and fertility. The climate is excellent; and 
its numerous population are celebrated for their learning and 
politeness. 

6th. Kin-chau is called the south-eastern province; it is 
bounded on the east and south by the sea of Japan. The com- 
merce of this province is very considerable ; it has five commodi- 
ous and safe ports ; and several large cities and towns. On the 
southern extremity is the great island of Japan, about 100 miles 
distant. In the strait are two small but fruitful islands, called 
Key and Dor, admirably adapted for trade with Japan and 
Corea. 

7th. Tchu-sin province occupies the south-west side of the Penin- 
sula, and' lies opposite Shan-tung, one of the provinces of China 
Proper; the north-eastern extremity of this province is only distant 
from Shan-tung about forty leagues ; and the south-west point, 
nearly 200 leagues. Ten leagues from the south-west comer is 
the large island of Fong, i.e. Fong-ma, which is eighty miles in 

z 



838 QUELPAET ISLAND^ A BRITISH TRADING PORT. 

circumference ; distant from China eighty leagues^ and sixty from 
Japan. There are several small islands. This province has four 
chief cities^ which are thickly inhabited with a most industrious 
population, and are chicHy employed in the manufacture of silk and 
paper. The climate is said to be more healthy than that of any other 
of the provinces ; the earth is fruitful, and irrigated after the Chi- 
nese mode. The inhabitants successfully resisted the Japanese. 

8th. Tsuen*lo province is situated between the two last-named 
provinces, and occupies the centre of the southern extremity of 
the Peninsula. The ocean bounds its coasts to the extent of about 
150 leagues. The inhabitants are fond of commerce, courteous 
and hospitable to strangers. 

The kingdom of Corea is well watered with navigable rivers. 
Tlie Yalow river is situated on the north-west side of the kingdom. 
The mouth of this river is in latitude 4ff N. in some parts several 
miles wide ; it disembogues into the Yellow Sea. The river Le 
is a beautiful stream, traverses three provinces, and discharges into 
the Yellow Sea. Tatang river has at its mouth a capacious harbour. 
This river discharges into the Eastern Sea, or the Sea of Japan. 

QuELPART Island. — The Quelpart island is situated in 
83^ 82", and lies about twelve leagues due south firom the coasts of 
Corea ; it is estimated to be fifteen leagues in circmnference. It 
is much larger than any of the islands of Corea, to part of which 
it is united, notwithstanding the distance, by an archipelago of 
islands, that lie to the north-west of it, and reach to the Corean 
shore. On the north side of this island there is a safe harbour, 
distinguished by lofty mountains in the centre, from which all 
their junks depart for Japan. The British ship Nimrod, visited 
this island in 1842, and procured fifty-six bullocks, which were 
most acceptible to our war vessels then serving in China. The 
natives seem to be governed by a chief. Cattle appear to be 
the principal production which they convey to the town of Fausan 
in Japan, in barter for clothing. This island is admirably adapted 
by its position, climate, fertility, and harbour, for a British trad- 
ing post, which might be maintained at no expense to the home 
treasury. 

Government op Corea. — The government of Corea is, if possi- 
ble, more despotic than that of the Chinese, and in every respect 
partakes of its selfish character. The reigning family is the Le dy- 
nasty, who cannot be crowned without the sanction of the Emperor 
of China, who on that occasion sends an ambassador to receive 
homage from the new king before his accession. This, together 
with consulting the Emperor of China on his Majesty's choice of a 
queen or successor* to the throne, is all the obligation imposed, 
n the government of his dominions the king rules, without any 
domestic or foreign control. His army and navy are insignificant. 

The first monarch, who subjected all the chiefs that ruled over 
Corea, was Cao^ i. e. Kao, hence called Kao's kingdom or Caoli. 



HISTORY OF CHINA — ITS OOYERNMENT AND PRODUCTIONS. 339 

The Japanese made many unsuccessful attempts to conquer this 
kingdom^ with the ulterior view of reaching China, but were al- 
ways defeated by the aid of the Mantchou Tartars, with whom 
the Coreans were in alliance, long prior to their conquest of China. 

Taico Sam, an Emperor of Japan, was poisoned in Corea, by 
one of the nobles, the nobleman first taking a portion of the fatal 
cup, which also destroyed his life. Ever since that period an enmity 
has existed between these two kingdoms. 

The first Emperors of the present dynasty of China, were very 
anxious to protect Corea, as the Russians had encroached as far as 
the river Amour. The Chinese government in proposing a treaty 
of commerce with her powerful neighbour, (which was unsolicited), 
did so under the false pretence that encroachment would disturb 
their subjects in the pearl fishery. 

Corea has been submissive and hostile to China alternately. 
Under the Sung dynasty, the Coreans were reduced to the lowest 
state of vassalage. 

Kublia-khan failed in his efforts to annex Corea to China. 

The Coreans were completely overcome by the Japanese in 1592, 
until assistance was sent from China, which repelled the Japanese. 

The Coreans entered into a fresh treaty with the last Tartar con- 
querors of China, from motives of fear. They have preserved their 
ancient Chinese customs, and utterly reject all the Tartar innova- 
tions, such as shaving the head, &c. 

There is a quarterly contribution of ^' tribute'^ from the King of 
Corea, to the Emperor of China, besides an annual mission accom- 
panied with tribute. This quarterly " tribute'^ is exacted in order 
the better to keep the Coreans from opening an intercourse with 
foreigners, likewise their calender is sent from Peking. 

In 1821, Timkowski met a Corean embassy on its way to China, 
and thus records his interview with these little known people : — 

'* In the evening three Corean officers paid me a visit, they exa- 
mined with much attention our clothes, sabres, and pistols. I pre- 
sented one of them with a clasp knife, and the others with some 
other trifling things; they received them with expressions of plea- 
sure. One of them told me that their countrymen were continual- 
ly disposed to revolt against the reigning dynasty. That the King 
is a&aid to venture out without his cavalry. The sovereign was 
confirmed in dignity by the Emperor of China. I presented him 
with a sabre, but he was apprehensive that it would be taken from 
him by the Tartar sentinels which surrounded the house. An in- 
timation was giircn them that they had visited the Russians too 
often, and must depart." 

Productions. — Paper is said to be the chief manufacture, but 
as the Corean trade is restricted to Japan and Peking, little is 
really known of their commerce ; silver ingots form the circulating 
medium. By their treaty with China, they are obliged to send an 
embassy thrice every year to Peking, The embassy takes advaji"* 

z2 



840 RVSTRICTIVB BRITISH POLICY IN CHINA. 

tage of the opportanity, and opens a shop during their stay, to dis- 
pose of their goods. This is in accordance with the policy of the 
Chinese governinenty which is to lessen all other nations in the 
eyes of the people, and magnify the dignity of the celestial empire. 
It is full time such a system were overthrown. Corea abounds 
with com, cattle, and timber; that is, with the very articles of 
which China stands in need, and of which our vessels would be 
the carriers, if there were an unrestricted intercourse between the 
different states around China. It is scarcely possible to find a 
peninsula in any part of the world better adapted for trade, by rea- 
son of its geographical position between China and Japan, with the 
sea on three sides, possessed of a fine climate, a fertile soil, and an 
industrious people. But of these and other advantages spread 
before us, we refuse to avail ourselves. In the reign of Qaeen 
Elisabeth, Englishmen would have been encouraged to explore the 
resources of Corea, &;c. now toe have actually passed an order in 
council, to prevent any Englishman going beyond the 82^ of north 
Intitudcy under the penalty qf being treated as a felon, and his ship 
and property seized! 

THE LOOCHOO ISLANDS. 

Intercourse with China anu Japan. — ^The Loochoo or 
Liequseo group of islands, lie to the south of the Japanese Em* 
pire, under 26^ north latitude, and 128j>^ east longitude, from 
Greenwich. The area of the thirty-six islands is estimated at 
5,000 square miles. Oreat Loochoo, the largest of the group, is 
about sixty miles long, by fifteen broad ; its fine bay, called Napa- 
keang, lies due east of Fuhchow-foo, one of the free ports of China, 
from which it is said to be 400 miles distant, and 870 miles S.S.W. 
of the Bay of Nagasaki, in Japan. 

I saw at Foochoo, in June, 1845, some of the Loochoo junks and 
Loochoo men ; they were different in complexion, countenance, and 
stature, from the Chinese, and wore their hair fastened in a knot 
on the top of the head, with a gold or silver bodkin. Their man- 
ners were pleasing, and they seemed to take great interest in ex- 
amining our steam vessel. They bring gold annually to Foochoo 
to purchase goods. 

The Loochoo islands are said to be nominally subject to one of 
the princes of Japan (Satzuma), with whose principality the natives 
are permitted to trade to the amount of 125,000 taels per annum. 
When the Tartars usurped the Chinese throne (a.d. 1644), a great 
number of the Chinese emigrated to these islands. 

The inhabitants probably ally themselves to Japan for their 
better protection; but no supremacy is acknowledged. They 
appoint their own governor or chief; are judged by their own 
laws, and exercise freely whatever religion they wish to adopt. 

The chief's residence is on the western part of the great island 
of Loochoo. The harbour of Napa-keang is about ten furlongs 



THE LOOCHOO ISLAND. 341 

from the western part of the island, in 26^ 2' north latitude, and 
145° 26' 2r east. 

Of the thirty-six islands, eight are to the N.E. of the great island, 
five to the N.W. of that part called Chouli, four to the E., three 
to the W., seven to the S., and nine to the S.W. 

The inhabitants of these islands may be divided into three 
distinct classes: — ^first, the rulers, who understand the Chinese 
language ; second, the natives, who are educated, and write the 
Japanese and Chinese characters; third, a class who are superior 
to coolies. 

They are governed by officers sent from the capital of Loochoo, 
and removed every five years. Crimes of magnitude are sent for 
trial to the capital, except adultery, which is held in such abhor- 
rence that summary vengeance is inflicted. 

Their houses are built according to an established law. There 
are generally ten or twelve inclosed by a wall, and again sub- 
divided into separate dwellings ; firm and compactly built, but void 
of furniture of any kind. 

Here, also, we ought to have perfect freedom of intercourse. 
The Loochoo, as also the Bonin Islands, would be excellent places 
of resort for our whalers when in the Northern Pacific ; and as 
the day is not far distant when steam-vessels will navigate from 
the east coast of America, vift Japan, to China, these islands would 
be valuable as coal depots and recruiting stations. One hundred 
and seventy whaling-ships recently left the port of Honolahe, in the 
Sandwich islands, for the northern seas in and near Japan ; if we 
do not exercise some influence as a government, it will be done by 
the whalers of difierent nations, and perhaps in a manner not to 
the credit or honour of Englishmen. 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND TIBET, 

TREATIES, &c. 

The proximity of Tibet, a dependency of China, to the British 
possessions in Hindostan, and the existing state of aiffairs in 
Nepaul, a country contiguous to Tibet, will justify some detail on 
a region of which little is known. (See chap, i., p. 25.) 

A large mountainous tract of country, situated about 73° and 98° 
longitude east of Greenwich, and 27° and 38° north latitude, is 
generally termed Tibet \ by the natives it is called Bod or Pot. 
Both Qreat and Little Tibet occupy lofty ground, and lie among 
snowy mountains. The national names given to the different 
mountains and places, are expressive of snow, frozen snow, (ice), 
cold, and great altitude. The highest ground is in the north- 
western part, which is called Nan, and lies towards Ladak., One 
very high peak, called Tise or Tese, and Kailasa, in Sanscrit, is 
in about longitude 80° east, and latitude 34° north, the ^' abode of 
snow.^' This stupendous ridge, whose ever-snowcapt peak rises, it is 



843 GEOGBAPBY OF TIBET-BOUNDARIES, &C. 

said, to 26,680 feet, and which has at least twenty peaks higher than 
the loftiest summit of the Andes, separates Hindostan from Tibet. 

From the first range of the HimaJaya mountains, on the Indian 
side, to the plains of Tartary, the Tibetians count six chains of 
mountains, running in a north-western and south-western direc- 
tion, as viewed from Kangri, in Nari, (a lofty mountain running 
from S.W. to N.W.), from whence they commence to take on one 
side a N.W., and on the other side a S.E. inclination. In the 
spacious valley which lies between the third and fourth range of 
the above mountains, is the great road of communicati<Hi, Ladak 
and U-tsang (i. e., Middle Tibet). 

The sources of the Indus, Sutlej, Oogra, and the Brahmaputra 
rivers, are in Nari. There are several large lakes in Tibet. 

Tibet is bounded on the north by the countries of the Turks and 
Mongols, east by China, south by India, and on the west by India, 
Cashmere, Affghanistan, Tazikyul, and Turkestan. 

From the time of our sudden expulsion from this interesting 
country, in 1783, hy the Tartar rulers of China, it has been a 
terra-incognita, until an enterprising Hungarian traveller, Alex- 
ander Cosmos de Koros, f arnished an account to the .British autho- 
rities in India in 1832. 

The great divisions of Tibet are stated to be : — 

1. Tibet Proper, or U-tsang; 2. K'ham-»yul, the eastern part of 
Tibet ; and, 3. Nari, or the north-western part of Tibet. 

Tibet Proper is that part which lies next to the north of Assam, 
Bootan, and Nipal ; this is the most considerable part of Tibet. 

K'ham-yul (Great Tibet) consists of the eastern part of Tibet, 
and is bounded by China on the east. There are small principali- 
ties, such as : Kham-bo, Oaba, Lithang, De-ge, Brag-yak^ Dep-ma, 
Go-jo, Amdo, and Jang-sa-tam. The north-western part of Tibet, 
from Tsing to Ladak, is called Nari, and is supposed to be of great 
extent. 

Little Tibet, i.e. Beltiston, is the most north-western part of 
Tibet. The inhabitants are ruled by chiefs, some of which are 
powerful. Some of the inhabitants are thought to be of Affghan 
origin. [The Affghans are said to be of Jewish origin, and they 
have very much the appearance of Asiatic Jews.] 

The countries on the Indian side that lie next to Tibet, com- 
mencing from Cashmere, are : Kha-ch^heyul (Cashmere), Varan, 
Maude, Paldor (or Chatirgerth), Fange, Gar-zha (or Lahul)j 
Kulla, K'hunu, i.e. Knaor, and Besahr ; Kyonam and Shak-hok, 
or Garhawal and Kumaon; Dsum-lang, Gorkha-yul, Pal-yul (or 
Nipal), Lhopato (or Bootan), Ashang, i.e. Assam. 

The names of the countries or districts in Tibet that adjoin 
India, commencing from Cashmere, are : Himbab (near Cashmere), 
Purik, Zanskar, Spiti-guge, Purang, Kyirong, Lhoprak, Myanam, 
XiacV-hi, Mon-ts'-ho-sna. 

Beyond the fourth range of the Himalaya Mountains, or in the 
next valley to the north of Ladak, there are the following districts, 



COUNTRIES CONTIGUOUS TO CHINA. 343 

counting eastward: Nubra, Rudok^ Tsotso^ Bomba^ Chang-ts*- 
hak'-ha^ Chang-ra-greng. 

The principal countries in tbis db'ection, from nortb-west, are : 
Beltiston (or Little Tibet), Ladak, Tesbigang, Gar, or Qaro (tbe 
Lower and Upper), Trosbot, Tsang-u, BImgang. The two chief 
rivers take their rise here, viz., tbe Senge-k^-ha-bab, and the 
Tsanpo, or Tsang-bo ; the latter is the L*rawadi, of Burmah, and 
not the Brahmaputra, as laid down by Major Rennell in 1765. 

The next country westward of Tibet is Ladak, the rajah of which 
(a Mohammedan) has been placed under the control of the Chinese 
resident at Lassa, in order to restrain the incursions of his subjects 
into Tibet. This country borders upon the Sikh territory. 

From Ladak to Yarkand, in Turkestan (see p. 19) is a 
journey of about thirty-five days. The country on the way is 
inhabited for two stages, where Chinese officers are met with ; five 
Chinese and twenty Usbecks in each camp: but, for the next 
twenty days, the country passed through is not much inhabited. 
No one is allowed to travel without a passport from the Chinese 
umbauns, which is sealed, regularly dated, and the travellers are 
compelled to account for their time. 

The chief of Ladak, it is said, informed the Chinese govern- 
ment, a few years ago, that the English were constructing a road 
to Kangbri, which is situated near Ispitte. This is so far true ; 
the British resident at Subathoo, caused this road to be made in 
the valley of the Sutlej, through the state of the British tri- 
butaries. 

Kanghri is a Sikh province, situated on the opposite bank of 
the Sutlej, and Ispitte another country bordering the frontier. 

Westward of Nipal, which skirts Bootan, are the British districts 
of Kumaon and Oarhawal, which are in immediate contact with 
Tibet, with which the Gorkas, and other subjects of the British 
government in India, are in constant intercourse as traders through 
the passes in the mountains. Beyond Garhawal, and between 
that district and the Biver Sutlej, where they come in contact 
with the Sikh power, are a number of small principalities, who are 
controlled in their foreign relations, and likewise pay tribute to 
the British agent at Subathoo, or Deyrah-doon. 

The geography of all these regions is so imperfectly known, and 
becoming daily of such great importance, that a few more notes 
collected on the subject may be useful. 

Continuing the Chinese frontier westward, from Ladak, Ue 
the mountainous states of Iskardo, Gilgit, Gunjut, Chitral, &c. 

Iskardo, Le. Beldestan, is said to be only eight marches north- 
east from the city of Cashmere. 

!From Iskardo to Yarkand, in Chinese Turkestan, is a high road^ 
over which merchants travel in caravans. 

There are two other kingdoms which lie in the neighbourhood 
of the Chinese possessions in this quarter ; Bokhara, including its 
provinces of Sarmakand and Balk, and Kokan. According to the 



844 KU8SIAN, BNOLISHi AKD CHINESE EMPIRES IN CONTACT. 

lale Sir A* Bumes^ Bokhara and Eokan may be said to indude all 
Turkestan (except the Chinese portion)^ as they are the two most 
influential of its states. The rulers of these countries^ and a great 
portion of their subjects, are Usbecks and Mohammedans of the 
Sunite sect, Bumes states, also, that the relations between Bok- 
hara and Cabul with China are fHendly. 

The Russians, for years, have been endeavouring to force a trade 
in this quarter. 

Kokan, or Ferghana, the next considerable country on the 
western frontier of Chinese Turkestan, is bounded on the north by 
the Bussian dependencies of Orenbe^ and Tomsk ; and this, as 
far as we know, completes the chain oiF foreign powers that sur- 
rounds the Chinese frontier. 

Klaproth states, that the Russian new boundary (1828) pnt' 
that power in possession of a tract of country of 200,000 square 
miles ; this boundary was the Kuksu, or Blue River : it is said that 
the Russians have crossed it, and have erected forts on the Kokan 
side. 

The British territory of Assam is separated from Tibet on the 
north by the Himalaya moimtains ; on the east, a narrow strip of 
the Burman territory divides it from the Chinese province of 
Yun-nan ; on the south, it borders on the Burman empire. 

Manipub.* From the S.E. of the Valley of Assam, in N. lat. 
26^ 80', and E. long. 95°, a mountain chain takes a southerly 
direction, having Manipur and Burmah on the east ; on the west, 
Kachar and Arracan, till it terminates at Cape Negrais, the south- 
ern limit of the latter province, and the S.E. cape of the Bay of 
Bengal, in lat. 16° N. ; thus far being under British authority. 
This part varies in height from 7000 to 8000 feet ; the valleys have 
an elevation from 2600 to 3600 feet above the sea. From the east 
of Assam this range is divided, one part passes into the Chinese 
provinces of Yun-nan and Sze-chuen. 

It will be seen from these statements, and those in Chapter L/ 
that the British and Russian powers are thus hemming iu the 
Chinese colonial possessions in two nearly parallel lines; the 
former, moreover, is approaching the southern provinces of China 
Proper. Scarcely thirty leagues of the Burman territory lie be- 
tween the British possessions and the Chinese province of Yun- 
nan. It is not difficult to predicate that Russia and Englandi 
either conjointly by peaceable measures, or separately by war, 
must exercise, at no distant day, an important influence in China, 
which is fast losing, inland^ as well as by sea, its attempted 
isolation. 

Political Relations. — Tibet appears to have had relations 
with China at a very early period. But we are as yet uncertain 
whether there be any annals of public transactions kept there. In 

* P^mberton's Report. 



CHINE8B RELATIONS WITH TIBET. 345 

the time of the Tang dynasty^ about a.d. 750^ the intercourse 
between the two countries became more frequent. This was 
caused by the introduction of Budhism into China^ from Tibet. 
From that period^ each successive GialbOy or king of the country^ 
claimed an alliance with China^ by marriages with the imperial 
family. 

The following singular treaty between China and Tibet^ a.d. 
821^* indicates that Tibet was then an independent country. 

" The Emperor Wen won hiao te houang-ti of the great Thong, 
(China) and the Ching-chin Dyanbon of the great Pho, (Tibet) two 
princes considering each other as uncle and nephew; after having 
consulted the gods of their country have to unite (in friendship,) 
made and sworn to a sincere alliance between them, which is to 
continue without interruption. They take spirits and men to wit- 
ness, and that it may come to the knowledge of future ages and 
races, they have had it engraved on a stone, to transmit it to 
posterity. These two wise, holy, spiritual, and accomplished 
princes, foreseeing the changes hidden in the most distant futurity, 
touched with sentiments of compassion towards their people, and 
not knowing in their beneficent protection any difference between 
their subjects and strangers, have, after reflection and mutual con- 
sent, resolved to give peace to their people. To diffuse this bene« 
fit everywhere, they have for the future established their govern- 
ment on solid bases ; in perfect harmony with each other they will 
henceforth be good neighbours, and will do their utmost to draw 
still closer the bonds of union and friendship. Henceforth the 
two empires shall have fixed boundaries. Whatever is to the east 
of the Thao and Mint shall belong to the great Thong; and what- 
ever is to the west of the rivers shall be considered as forming part 
of the country of the great Pho. In preserving these limits, the 
respective portions shall not endeavour to injure each other; they 
shall not attack each other in arms, or make any more incursions 
beyond the frontier now determined. If by chance anyone passes 
the boundaries (of the two empires,) he shall be detained and in- 
terrogated as to his motives ; clothes and provisions shall be given 
him, and he shall be sent back to from whence he came ; for not 
to displease the tutelary gods of the country, and the genii of the 
mountains and the waters, every one must respect men and spirits. 

'^ The uncle and nephew notwithstanding the affection they have 
for each other, may find difficulties in conferring together in per- 
son. In order to keep up their mutual connexion, the two empires 
shall communicate by envoys, who shall have free passage between 
the two states. 

" When the envoys of Thong, and the ambassadors of Pho, shall 
have arrived in the valley of Tsiang*kiun-ku, where the horse mar^ 

• Translated by Klaproth. 

t The south-western part of Shense, is so called) after the two rivers which traverse it. 



846 TREATY BSTWUN TIBXT AND CHINA; A.D. 821. 

ket 18 kept, (which is established between the two empires) they 
shall be maintained to the east of the country of Thao and Min, 
at the expense of the great Thong ; but to the west of the town of 
Thsing Chouihian, their support shall be at the charge of the 
great Pho. 

** Observing the rules prescribed by decorum between such near 
relations as uncle and nephew, that smoke and dust may not be 
raised on the firontiers of the two states, they must reciprocally 
exalt their virtues and banish for ever all mistrust between them ; 
that travellers may be without uneasiness, that the inhabitants of 
the villages may Uve at peace, and that nothing may happen to 
cause a misunderstanding. This benefit will be extended to future 
generations, and the voice of love (towards its authors,) will be 
heard wherev» the splendour of the sun or moon is seen. 

'' The Pho will be tranquil in these kingdoms, and the Han will 
be j(^ul in their empire. 

'' Everyone is bound to observe this solemn obligation, which 
shall never be altered or changed ; it has been sworn to before the 
three precious beings ;* before all the spiritual beings which exist 
under the sun, the moon, the stars, the azure vault of heaven, and 
by the animals which have been samficed. Whoever does not ful- 
fil the clauses of this treaty, and who shall break the oath, will be 
pumshed by them and pursued by misfortune. 

** The great men of Han and Pho, respectfully prostrate them- 
selves, and have concluded the treaty contained in the inscription.^' 

'' The authenticity of this document is confirmed by the ancient 
Thong Chou, (History of the Thong) which says, '' in the first of 
the years called Tchang-king, (a.d. 821) in the ninth month, the 
ambassadors of Pho proposed to conclude a treaty of peace. This 
was agreed to, and the emperor commanded that Sicon*yuan«ting, 
minister, censor and grandee of the empire, should go to Tibet, to 
swear with their envoys to a treaty. After various negotiations, 
they agreed upon and concluded a treaty of peace, between the 
kingdoms of Thou, Pho, and China.'' 

Relations were thus, it is said, established between China and 
Tibet in the seventh century of our era, the wars with the Sefans 
brought the two countries in contact; and both kingdoms profess- 
ing Budhism, the former regarded the latter as a holy country, and 
intermarriages were sought for by each. 

The immense wealth stored up in the temples of Tibet, excited 
the cupidity of the Eleuths, who sacked the temples, and conveyed 
the Lamas to Soungaria. 

In the twelfth centiyy the Tibetians became, nominally, vassals 
to China; but in the thirteenth, their country was desolated by the 
Mongols. Under the Ming dynasty, from 1867 to 1644, the Chi- 

• The three Budhas of the Past, Present, and Future ages of the world. * This looks 
Jikc a type of the Trinity. 



CONTESTS BETWSBN TIBET AMD CHINA. 847 

nese ruled Tibet by a new mode^ viz. : by spiritual leaders^ who Lad 
honours and emoluments showered on them. The Tibetians have 
displayed several inclinations to throw off the China yoke. Tibet 
did not lose the power of styling her rulers gialbo, until nearly a 
century after she had submitted wholly to China, in the reign of 
Kang-he. And it was not till the reign of Keen-lung, when the 
last ruler, who bore that title, revolted, that it was abolished. 
When this event took place, the tributary dominions of the coun- 
try were given to the Dalai-lama, (spiritual chief,) who had previ- 
ously possessed a larger share of authority. His government was 
not subservient enough to the Tartar ruler of China. A revolt 
taking place. Keen-lung fixed the present form of government, 
about 1793. 

Before the Tartars were well on the throne of China, (1647,) the 
DcUai-'lama, unsolicited, sent tribute to the-conquerors, and then 
went in person to the court of Shun-che. The Emperor granted 
him a patent, by which he appointed him chief of the religion of 
Foo. About this time the Mongol Tartars took possession of Tibet. 
In a subsequent revolt, the Tibetians called in the aid of China ; 
and the court of Peking sent an army under General Olounda. 
The first force was not able to subdue the rebels, and Kang-he 
sent an additional force, under the command of his son. 

The reigning Dalai-lama was then called by the title of Kaubil- 
gan ; but the Emperor of China sent him the former title, with a 
letter, breathing a warm expression of his fitvour and regard. The 
Chinese force exterminated the black lamas, placed the Dalai oiv 
the throne of Saudala j and confirmed him by an ordinance of the 
59th of Kang-he, (a.d. 1720.) 

A.D. 1727. There was another revolt, but the Chinese troops were 
successful. From this period the Chinese government increased 
the garrison, and built at Koda, near Ta-tsin-lau, (in the Chinese 
province of Sze-chuen), the temple of Kauci-yuen, which was ap- 
pointed to serve in future as the residence of the Dalai-lama. 

The town of Djachi was built in 1733, and in 1735 the Sunga- 
rians submitted. About this time the Dalai was removed to his 
old quarters, Baudala. In 1760, the several orders of princes^ 
which had been created at the general peace, were abolished, and 
the government was solely confided to Chinese generals, the con- 
sent of the Dalai being formally asked. Troops were spread all 
along the frontiers, extensive commercial intercourse commenced 
between the two countries, and Lassa became the great western 
capital. 

In 1791, the Gorkas began to disturb the frontiers of Dzangba, 
or Thsang, a province of Tibet. The Emperor of China ordered a 
large army to terminate the disturbance. All this part of the 
western countries was independent of China ; but as the Tartars 
had penetrated the territory, it was set down as a place belonging 
to China. 



848 TIBBTIAN FOBM Or GOVBBNUSNT. 

When this war tenninated, the Tartar oommander-m-chief pre- 
sented himself before Keen-lung, who was then at his country- 
palace^ Jehol, where he met with Lord Macartney. Previous to 
the arrival of this victorious general, Lord Macartney was graci- 
ously received, and would have probably obtained an advantageoos 
treaty ; bat the day after his arrival aflbirs took a diflferent turn, 
and the British ambassador, who had intended to pass the winter 
at Peking, very soon received his audience of leave. It is supposed 
the Tartar general alarmed the Emperor about the British position 
in Bengal. 

Tibet has ever since been a province of China, if occupation of 
it by Chinese troops, and having its affairs administered by its 
officers, constitute it as such. 

Every year, messengers are sent from Las«>a, bearing an imperial 
mandate from China, addressed to the Deb and dhurrna rajahs of 
Bootan, and to the jnlas and zumpons under their orders. This 
mandate contains instructions to be careful in governing the coun- 
try, to quell internal tumult promptly, and report any apprehended 
invasion from foreign foes. A present of twenty pieces of gold is 
also sent. 

Tibet is governed by two great ministers sent from Peking, 
called Tachm, they govern both Anterior and Ulterior Tibet 
These ministers, as a matter of form, consult the DalaUlama on 
whatever concerns Anterior Tibet, and the Bant^chin erdeni for the 
affairs of Ulterior Tibet. All appointments to offices of govern- 
jnent, and to ti4es of nobility, must have the consent of the Chi- 
nese officers. Within the last few years one of those oflScers 
makes an annual tour along the frontiers of Nepaul. 

The Tartar generals who reside at Lassa^ appoint the chief 
officers of government of Tibet. The choice falls on men of rich 
families, and the appointments are not fi'ee from suspicion ; but as 
the government is entirely military, everything is carried with a 
high hand. The officers are called kalion, of which there are four, 
each of whom directs one branch of the administration ; one of 
them being chief. 

The shuidzaba collect taxes; the nansosiaks, superintend the 
tribunals and the territorial revenue ; djacenkors, direct the law 
proceedings; dzeigons keep the public accounts, the two latter are 
hereditary. The seniors of the public functionaries bear the title 
of goussio; the writers are called djoner; a director is called a 
nerba; an interpreter, nesiamba. The chief officers are styled 
teba. There are subordinate officers, called kodou, and all are paid 
out of the taxes which are levied. 

It is said that there are 60,000 soldiers stationed in Tibet, viz. : 
Lassa, 8,000 horse ; Dyang, 2,000 ; Ngari, 6,000 ; Koba, 1,000 \ 
Tardzi, 3,000, which are divided between Landzi, Lanmantso, and 
among the Mongols living in tents in Ngari ; and nearly 60^000 
infantry in the two Tibets. The army is raised by taking one man 



TIBETIAN BELIOION LIKE ROMANISM. 840 

out of ten or five ; the same with the horses. None are exempt 
from conscription. 

In battle, the soldiers wear a coat of mail^ made of sma^ pieces 
of iron^ or chains ; and their arms consist of short swords^ mus- 
kets, and bows and arrows. 

Shamani'Smy the state religion of Tibet^ is an ancient supersti- 
tion. Strabo calls their system Ghermans; Clement^ Sarmetns ; 
and Porphyry that of Samaneans. 

The great resemblance between the superstition, and that adopt- 
ed in Roman Catholic countries, induces a belief that they received 
it from members of that persuasion, and likewise from the Nes- 
torians. The most striking features of their system in coincidence 
with Romanism, are : their missals, vespers, beads, masses, cloisters, 
nunneries, celibacy, and the peculiar dress of the priests, particu- 
larly the cap, which is precisely that of the Franciscan order. 

This spiritual government, or hierarchy, was first known about 
the ninth century, and is not much practised out of their own 
country, if the patronage bestowed on it by the Emperor of China 
for obvious reasons be excepted. The lamas or high priests are 
venerated as incarnations of Budha (himself an incarnate Deity) « 
The grand lama at Lassa, is supposed to be the first-rate incarna- 
tion of Budha, in human form ; and at the dissolution of the latter, 
he enters into a new shape to reveal himself to the world. When 
the grand lama dies, there is a general mourning for three years, 
and prayers for the restoration of the lost Budha. There are three 
gradations, viz : the grand lama ; the Bantchin Erdeni lama, who 
resides at Teshoo Loomboo ; and the Taranath lama. 

The priests are divided into two sects, each being distinguished 
by the colour of their caps, yellow and red. The grand lama of 
Lassa, and the Bantchin Erdeni lama, who resides at Teshoo 
Loomboo, belong to the yeUow caps. The Taranath lama resides 
in the north, but is taken little notice of. 

Both pontiffs have an endless host of monks, who obey their 
commands. The red caps are allowed to marry, and are the 
spiritual advisers to the Chinese. 

The three pontiffs sit in conclave, and sensualize to excess while 
discovering the time, form, and place of the new incarnation. 
\Vhen they agree upon the point, the sanction of theBantchinErdeni 
must be obtained, and then that of the Emperor of China. As 
soon as the affair is made public, all the nobles and officers of go- 
vernment repair to the place where the lama^s incarnation has 
been predicted. This demi-god is always selected from amongst a 
wealthy family, and to effectually screen his extraction, the father 
of the child is put out of the way in a secret manner. Keen-lung, 
the Tartar Emperor of China, in the latter end of the last century, 
became enamoured of this abominable delusion, which is marked 
with blood. 

Keen-lung very soon learned this sleight-of-hand trick, practised 



860 PASSPORTS IN TIBET. 

in these divinations, so that he procured a number of lamas in 
Mongolia, Tibet, and Peking, to make a selection as opportuni- 
ties occurred favourable to Chinese interests. 

The Grand Lama only appears in public once a year, and although 
arrogating to himself superhuman knowledge, and with great 
contempt viewing all other beings, yet he looks up to the Emperor 
of China with a degree of respect, if not of veneration. 

The dalai lama sends an embassy every year to Peking, with 
presents, which consist of a very fine description of woollen cloth, 
perfumed tapers, small silver obelisks, idols, and other various uten- 
sils used in the Budhist temples. Their value is said to amount to 
upwards of 60,000 rubles. Presents are likewise sent to the rela- 
tions of the Emperor, likewise to his great ministers. He also sends 
valuable presents to the several lamas, who reside at Peking. 
Books which are printed at Lassa, relating to Budhism, are poured 
into China in great quantities. 

Passports are used in Tibet. The following is a copy of a Tibet- 
ian passport, issued previous to the Tartar rule in Tibet. It was 
translated by the distinguished Hungarian traveller. Cosmos de 
Koros : — 

'^ From the noble (city) Lhassa, (or Lassa), the circumambula- 
ting race of religion ; — ^to those that are on the road as far as Avya- 
desa, or India ; to clerical, laical, noble, ignoble, lords, (or masters) 
of men; to residents in forts, stewards, managers of affairs; to 
Mongols, Tibetians, Turks, and to dwellers in tents in the desert; 
to envoys or public messengers, vakils or ambassadors, going to and 
fro; to keepers and precluders of by-ways (or short cuts); to the 
old (or head) men collectively, charged to perform some business 
of small or great importance ; to all these is ordered (or is made 
known). 

^' These four foreign (or travelling) persons, residing at Lhassa, 
Ichang-h-chan, Mohammedans of JVhang-na, after having exchanged 
their merchandise, going back to their own country, having with 
them sixteen loads on beasts; having nothing for their defence 
except some Lahore weapons, — Do not hinder, rob, and plunder 
them ; but let them go to and fro in peace. 

** This has been written from the noble Lhassa, the great religious 
race, from the senate-house of both ecclesiastical and civil officers, 
in Sa-bhriing, (earth's dragon) in the year T, ch. (1688), the [day 
of month.'* (These dates are wanting.) 



A square 
Seal. 



A few words on the British intercourse with Tibet may be ne- 
cessary. The territory called Bootan forms a part (rf the great 



LE'TTXR TO WARBEN HASTINGS l^ROM TIBET. 8S1 

chain^ of which Tibet is a portion ; at the foot of this ridge an 
extensive plain forms a boundary between Bengal and Bootan. 

In 1772^ the Bajah of Cooch-Behar sought the aid of the British 
government against the Bajah of Bootan. His cause was effect- 
ually sustained ; and his enemies were driven back to their own 
mountains. The Bootans then applied for support to the Tishu 
Lama^ the guardian of the Orand Lama of l^bet^ who in con- 
sequence despatched a letter to Warren Hastings^ who was then 
Governor-general^ requesting a cessation of hostilities against 
Bootan, which had been in relation with Tibet since 1791. The 
letter was as follows: — dated 19th March 1774. 

" Having heard from travellers of your reputation, my heart, 
like the blossoms of spring, abounds with gladness and joy. 

^^ I am the Bajah and Lama of this country, and rule over a great 
number of subjects. I am informed that you have engaged in war 
against the Deh Terria, to which it is said the Deh's criminal con- 
duct has given rise. As he is of an ignorant rude race, past 
times are not destitute of instances of the like faults, which his 
avarice has tempted him to commit. His party has been defeated, 
and his army killed, and if you liked, you might have extirpated 
him. But I take upon me to be his mediator ; and to state to 
you that he is dependent upon me. As he is too young to rule, 
the charge of the country is in my hands ; should you persist in 
molesting him, it will irritate the Lama and all his subjects against 
you. I have admonished the Deh, to desist from his evil conduct, 
and to be submissive to you in all things ; so treat him with com- 
passion and clemency. I am but a fakeer, and it is my custom to 
pray for all mankind. And I do, with my head uncovered, pray 
that you will cease from all hostilities in future. We, poor crea- 
tures, are in nothing equal to you. Having a few things in hand, 
I send them to you as tokens of remembrance, and hope for your 
acceptance.^' 

This demand was acquiesced in by the council, and a treaty 
of peace entered into with the Bootans. The contiguity of Tibet 
to the western frontier of China, suggested a possibility of an 
intercourse with that empire through the Dalai Lama. 

A treaty of peace was in consequence entered into between the 
English and Tibetians on the 25th April, 1774; and for the better 
continuance of friendship, Mr. Bogle was deputed from the Go- 
vernor-general of India, to the court of the Itshu Lama, 

He enjoyed the hospitality and kindness of the Tishu, for upwards 
of eight months ; and on his return, was entrusted with a large 
sum of money, to be expended in the erection of a temple on the 
river Hooghly, near Calcutta. 

Mr. Bogle, the envoy, obtained a promise from the Lama in 1779, 
that he would procure for him a passport from the Emperor of 
China. The Lama was only four days in Peking, when he signi- 



86S BMFIBOm OV CBIMA's LSmB TO TIBR. 

fied to tlie Emperor Keenhmg, tbat lie liad a faTonr to ask. The 
Emperor desired him to speak withoat reserve. The Lama said 
" In the coontry of Hindostan, which lies on the borders of my 
realm, there resides a great prince, for whom I have great Mend- 
ship. I wish yoa shooU know and regard him also, and if you 
will write him a letter of friendship, and receiTO his in return, it 
will give me ereat pleasure as I wish you should be known to 
each other, and that a fiiendty oommnnication should in future 
subsist between you." 

The Emperor readily granted all that had been asked, and slso 
inquired about the country, but Tartar-like, when the liama died, 
he forgot his royal promise made to his saintly friend. 

The Grand lAma dying in Peking, in 1779, intelligence of the 
sad event was sent to the Govemor-generaL 

When the new spiritual pontiff was discovered. Captain Tomer 
was sent to congratulate him. This mission was received in a 
different manner from the former, for reas<ms which must be 
apparent from the following letter from the Emperor of China. No 
British mission has been ^ere since, until Captain Pemberton was 
at Bootan in 1838. 

" Placed by Heaven at the head of ten thousand kingdoms, my 
endeavours are employed to govern them weU. I n^lect no means 
to procure peace and happiness to all that have life. I endeavoor 
to make learning and reJigion flourish. Lama, I am persuaded 
that you enter into my views^ and that your intentions accord 
with mine. I am not ignorant that you do all that depends on 
you, to omit iiothing that your religion prescribes, and to follow all 
their laws. You are pimctual at prayer, and you bestow the 
attention that praying well requires. It is by this that you 
become the most firm support of ike religion of Foo. I rejoice in 
it from my heart, and give you, with pleasure, the praises that 
are your due. By the favour of Heaven I enjoy health. I wish, 
Lama, that you may enjoy the same blessing, and that you may 
long continue to offer up your fervent prayers. 

'' The year before last, toe Punjun Lrtinnee set out from Loomboo, 
in order to pray here, at my seventieth birth-day. As soon as I 
heard of his departure, I sent the Lieutenant-general to meet him, 
and ordered that he should give him a Sautchou* of peari, that 
I had worn myself; a saddle, some silver, and other trifles. 

''This last year, Punjun lrtinnee, on lus way to visit me, I sent 
some grandees to meet him, and one of my travelling chairs, one 
of my camp tents, flags, and other tokens of distinction ; proper to 
create respect. 

''When he was within a few days' journey of the frontiers, I sent 

* A rosary, similar to what is in use in the Roman Catholic Church, on which their 
prayers are counted. 



THE EMPEROR OF CHINA TO THE LAMA OF TIBET. 353 

my eldest son to meet him^ who saluted him^ and gave him presents 
from me, with a horse and other things. 

" On the 2l8t of the seventh mbon, the Punjun arrived at Jehol, 
where I then was, and he gave me a feast of ceremony, to which 
the Lamas of his suite, from Loomboo^ were admitted. I gave in 
return a solemn entertainment ; but apart to all the Lamas c^ 
Jehol, to the Lamas of the Tchasaks, Eleuths, Kokonas, Tourgauths, 
and Turbeths. 

*' During this festival, the Mongol Princes, the Begs, the Taidjo, 
and other nobility, as well as the ambassadors from the Coreans, 
the Mohammedans, and others, were at Jehol, all did homage to 
him. Delighted with the reception, he requested to accompany 
me to Peking ; to which I consented. All the Lamas came to meet 
him, many thousands in number prostrated themselves. I 
assigned to him the golden apartment. I gave directions to show 
him anything worthy of attention. He officiated at the dedication 
of the imperial Miao, which I erected. 

" On the twentieth of the tenth moon^ the Punjun Irtinnee was 
ill, and I sent my physicians, who reported that he was danger- 
ously ill. I visited him in person. He received me with tokens 
of pleasure ; and from the words of satisfaction, with which he 
spoke to me, I thought he was recovering. It was however far 
otherwise ; and the venom of the small-pox had spread through 
all parts of his body, 

*' On the second day of the eleventh moon, the Punjun Irtinnee 
changed his dwelling (died). The shock overcame me; with a 
heart full of grief, and eyes bathed in tears, I repaired to the Yellow 
Chapel, where with my own hands I burned perfumes to him. 

''When I reflect that it was to do honor to my birth-day, that he 
made this long journey, this distresses me beyond all measure. To 
console me in some measure, I have resolved to render memorable 
the day of his regeneration. 

" I gave direction for making a shrine of gold, in which his body 
should be deposited, as something worthy of his precious remains. 
I have bestowed bounties on all his disciples, and on his brother 
I have conferred the title of Prince of the efficient prayer. I did 
not neglect the Tchasak Lamas, and to several of them I gave 
titles. 

''My design in entering on so long a detail, is to show you the 
great estimation in which I hold whatever is connected with you, 
and the profound regard I have for your person. 

"When the 100 days were up, I gave orders for the body to be 
conveyed with due pomp. I sent the eldest of my sons three days' 
journey with it. I joined the procession myself as far as it was 
proper that I should go. Although he has changed his abode, 
from the aid I have rendered to him, he will not long delay to be 
fixed in another habitation. 

2 A 



854 LAMA OF TIBET TO WARRBN HASTINGS. 

" Lamay it is my desire that you should show kindness to all the 
Lamas of Teshoo Loomboo, and respect them on my account ; 
from their conduct I judged them worthy of being your disciples. 
I recommend to vou those who accompany the body^ and who will 
perform the number of prayers that you may regulate. It remfdns 
for me to add, that I send Petingue and his suite, to salute you in 
my name. They will deliver to you a sautchou of coral, a tea-pot 
of gold, weighing thirty ounces, and bowl of the same weight; a 
silver tea-pot and bowl ; thirty sautchous of various coloured beads, 
and twenty purses. The 14th, 2nd moon, and 46th of ELienlung.^' 

Presents pass annually between the Dhurma Eajah of Bootan, 
and the Dalai Lama of Lassa; and three lamas, on the part of 
Bootan, reside at the court of Lassa. 

To the west of Bootan, is a small territory of the Sikham Bajah, 
who is said to be tributary to the Dalai Lama. 

In November, 1781, the Lama of Tibet addressed the following 
letter to our Governor-general at Calcutta : — 

Translation of a letter from Changoo Cooshoo Irtinnee Neimo- 
heim. Regent of Tishoo Loomboo, to Warren Hastings, Esq., 
Governor-general, &c., &c. 

'' Received, February 12th, 1782. 

" To the fountain of benefits, abounding in excellencies, orna- 
ment of the chief seat of power and greatness, shedding splendour 
on the leaders of Europe ; repository of valour and magnanimity ; 
exalted in enterprise ; high in dignity ; the governor Immaud 
u'Doulah. May his fortitude and his existence be perpetuated by 
the bounty of Almighty God I Some time before this, the Ehaw 
Kawn of China called unto him the Lord of his votaries, the lumi- 
nary of the word, Mahah Gooroo, with earnest solicitations : and 
on the 17th of the month Rubbe-u^-saunie, in the year of the 
Hijera, 1193, (17th June, 1779). 

*^ The lama, according to agreement, went towards the regions of 
China, and Khaw Kawn (Emperor of China) despatched leaders 
of distinction to meet him ; and kept in readiness cattle to trans- 
port his luggage, with tents and other conveniences. And there 
is a land called Soobah, where Mahah Gooroo and the Khaw 
Kawn of China, met each other in joy and satisfaction ; and they 
continued there for one month, and then proceeded to the dty of 
Picheen (Peking), that is to say, the royal city ; and in that city 
they remained six months. 

" The Khaw Kawn of mighty power, in the abundance of his 
faith and his love for the truth, exhibited proofs of his obedience 
and submission. And the Mahah Gooroo, on whom be the con- 
tinued blessing of the Almighty 1 instructed many of the sages of 
China in knowledge ; and he caused their heads to be shaven. 

" And down to this time the Mahah Gooroo was well in health ; 
but the water and air of China were pernicious to him. Such was 



TIBET INVADED BY THE NEFAULESE. 355 

the will of God ; eruptions of the small-pox came forth^ and our 
earnest endeavours availed nothing; for the predominating star of 
our happiness was reversed and obscured ; and the only remedies 
were resignation and submission. The measure of his existence 
was filled up, and the Kp of the cup of life was overflowed. And 
we supplicate, with a united voice, the return of the hour of trans- 
migration, that our departed lama may be again restored to our 
sight. And after the death of the lama, the gracious favour of 
Khaw Kawn was greater than before. 

'' When the funeral solemnities were concluded, we received our 
dismission ; but the Emperor caused every comfort for us on the 
road; people were placed at different places to convey the corpse 
of the deceased lama home. 

'' Poorungheer Gasien arrived here after the departure of the 
lama to China, and two letters and nine strings of pearls, which 
you sent as a gift, arrived safe. All these were submitted to the 
inspection of the lama; and the joy which he expressed on reading 
your letters was great. The rosaries and gifts you sent me, arrived 
in a happy hour, and caused much satisfaction. I formerly wrote 
a letter, and sent to you unwrought gold, that certain pearls, and 
coral, might be purchased for its value. I presume to repeat the 
request respecting the piece of land in the noble city of Calcutta. 
Concerning this I have instructed Poorungheer, who wiU make it 
known to you, hoping you will permit him to remain under the 
shadow of your protection. You must send to me constant in- 
formation of your health, that the garden of pleasure may flourish. 
Zehij jah, 1185, (November, 1781).'^ 

In 1791, Tibet was invaded by the Nepaulese, who carried off 
great plunder from Teshoo Loomboo, and rifled the tombs. They 
were pursued by the Chinese army, defeated, and compelled to sue 
for peace on the terms of restoring the property, and paying an 
annual tribute. The Chinese government keeps a close watch 
on the court with spies, called umbas, who send their lacoos * to 
Peking. 

The Nepaulese applied to the British government. Captain Kirk- 
patrick was appointed ambassador to Nepaul. 

The Chinese commander seemed well disposed to break off the 
conference when he perceived a British officer there. 

The similarity of dress between the Nepaulese soldiers and the 
British battalions, gave suspicions to the Tartars that we had been 
aiding them. 

The preceding details may be of some utility in the new rela- 
tions which we shall probably be compelled to form in this part of 
Asia. They show the loose tenure of power by which China holds 
Tibet in subjection, and they indicate that we may establish inter* 
course with that fine region on a satisfactory basis. 

* CSommunicators. 

3a2 



856 BRITISH INTERCOURSE WITH COCHIN CHINA. 



COCHIN CHINA AND CHINA— INTERCOURSE. 

Cochin China is sitnated near the southern extremity of Asia. 
Its limits have been greatly extended b^ conquest^ as it was formerly 
a mere strip of land between the China Sea and the mountains, 
not exceeding sixty-five miles in breadth. The kingdom now com- 
prehends Tonquin^ the chief port of Cambodia^ and the small state 
of Champa. It extends from the point in Cambodia^ in 8^ 36' north 
latitude^ to the northern confines of Tonquin ; and from the longi- 
tude of 105° to 109° east. It is bounded on the north by the 
Chinese provinces of Kiang-si and Yun-nan ; on the west by the 
kingdoms of Lao and Siam, while the gulfs of Siam^ Tonquin^ and 
the China Sea^ bound it on the S.W., E. and N.E. 

The area of Cochin China and Tonquin is estimated at 100,000 
square miles; and the chief towns^ Hue^ Faifo^ and Quintion. 
Turon Bay is a perfect harbour. The population is estimated at 
12,000,000 to 23,000,000. They bear some resemblance to the 
CUnese, by whom Tonquin is said to have been colonised, b.c. 
214. There are about 50,000 Chinese in Cochin China. In Ton- 
quin about 25,000 Chinese are said to be engaged in the gold, 
silver, and iron mines. Trade between Cochin China and China 
about 20,000 tons annually. 

Turon Bay was visited by Lord Macartney in His Majesty's 
ship " Lion,'* on his voyage to China^ in June, 1793. The markets 
were opened by order from the king, who sent a present of pro- 
visions himself; on one occasion upwards of 100 tons of rice, 
several bags of pepper, &c. The king was much pleased with 
presents given him by I^ord Macartney, and inclined to welcome 
the British. Civil wars had then been raging for a long succes- 
sion of years. The inhabitants are represented as industrious, 
and the soil fertile. There was a favourable, and, indeed, liberal, 
disposition on the part of the court, whence orders were issued 
permitting the English to travel into the country, and examine it 
as much as they should desire. 

'* Turon Bay is safe in all seasons of the year; sufiiciently capa« 
cious to hold the largest fleets, affording a complete shelter against 
both monsoons, with an islet surrounded by a sufficient depth of 
water to admit ships of considerable size heaving down by it ; and, 
on the whole, navy gentlemen here consider this port to be the most 
commodious of any on this side of Asia. The island of Campelo 
(or Callao), is within a few miles (eight) to the southward of Turon, 
latitude 15^ 58^ five and a half miles long by three broad. It is 
asserted that the French had, several years ago, proposed to pur- 
diase it from the King of Cochin China. They supposed that the 
quantity of gold extracted from the Cochin Chinese mountains, 
and the vast quantity of sugar manufactured in its plains and sold 



FRENCH INTERCOURSE WITH COCHIN CHIl^A. 357 

at a price vastly lower than in any other part of the world, together 
with the other produce of that country, would render a settlement 
in the neighbourhood very profitable ; but above all, they conceived 
that by stationing frigates there, on the approach of war, they 
might easily intercept our ships bound for, or returning firom^ 
Canton/' 

[Lord Macartney to Mr. Dundas, President of the India Board, 
dated Coast of China, 18 June, 1793.] 

The island which forms not only the east and south side of the 
port of Turon, but also the south bank of the Mesron Biver, would 
be a still more valuable acquisition than Campelo Island, as com- 
manding the best harbour; and more connected with, as closer to, 
the Continent. 

In 1803, there were several French settlers at Turon; there 
were also Portuguese traders from Macao, but the restrictions im- 
peded trade. 

In 1844, the French minister in China, M. Lagrene, sent one 
of his attending frigates to Turon, to demand redress for the ill- 
treatment of a French missionary. There were commercial agents 
from France sent in the frigate; and the Marquis de Ferrier in- 
formed me (while we were recently travelling home from the East), 
that it was intended to establish diplomatic and commercial rela- 
tions between France and Cochin China. 

When Lord Macartney was in Turon Bay (June, 1793), there 
were three trading vessels : a Portuguese, from Macao ; a Dutch, 
from Ostend; and one from China. '^ The cargoes of these vessels 
were chiefly paid in ir^ota of fine silver, and procured from silver 
mines lately opened in Cochin China. They have gold in ingots 
of the same form and size, but they preferred paying in silver.'' 
" Sugar sold in the inland villages at one penny a pound.'' Lord 
M. purchased '^ single refined at four-pence ; but the want of de- 
mand had reduced the quantity produced, and thus rendered the 
article dear." " The country everywhere is very populous ; it cer- 
tainly is round Turon. There are some considerable plantations 
of cotton, rice, and sugar-canes. Pepper, and a species of Cinna- 
mon are prized in China much beyond that of Ceylon." 

The king wishes as much as possible to give a red cloth uniform 
to his soldiers. [Red is the royal colour.] 

There was a constant call for clothing and arms. '' People even 
of the lowest class frequently wear silk, though they would natur- 
ally prefer cotton, if they knew how to manufacture their own, or 
could purchase what is manufactured abroad." 

From about 260, a.d. to 1404, Cochin China, including Ton- 
quin, paid homage to the Chinese monarch ; but, for a period of 
twenty years, it was in complete subjection to China. The inhabi- 
tants were occasionally independent, and at other times tributary ' 
to China, according to necessity. 



858 CHINESE INTERFERENCE IN COCHIN CHINA. 

In 1774, an insurrection broke out in the capital, Quin-nBQg. 
Three brothers concocted this rising: Yin-yack was a merchant; 
Laug-niang was a general officer ; the other was a priest. 

The reigning king, Caung-shung, was deposed, and the fature 
government was arranged as follows : Yin-yack took the two divi- 
sions of Chang and Dan-nai ; Lang-niang that of Hue, bordering 
on Tonquin ; the youngest brother was made high-priest of all 
the empire. Lang-niang no sooner arrived at his kingdom, than 
he commenced a quarrel with the King of Tonquin, who vsb 
then tributary to the Emperor of China. The king abandoned 
his army, and fled to Peking for protection. Keen-lung was then 
on the throne of China, and havmg been victorious in all his en- 
gagements in Tartary and Formosa, he did not hesitate to send an 
army to place his vassal on the throne of Tonquin. Orders were 
sent to the Viceroy of Canton to send 100,000 men to the scene of 
war, and to take the command. The usurper, Lang-naing, be- 
came acquainted with the intended route of this numerous army, 
and destroyed every town and village through which it intended 
to pass. The consequence was fatal to the troops, as long before 
they reached the frontier, they had to retreat. 

When the Chinese commander reached the neighbourhood of 
Canton, his force was reduced one-half, without a single engage- 
ment. To avert disgrace and certain punishment, he made over- 
tures to the usurper, who instantly spumed any terms, by saying 
he had 200^000 men ready to support him ; and that he had oeen 
declared King of Quang-tung (Cochin China and Ton-quin). 
These high-soimding titles did not in the least disconcert the com- 
mander-in-chief (Foo-chang-tang). Although inferior in the bat- 
tle-field to his opponent, other resources were at hand that had 
frequently succeeded. He despatched a courier to Peking, with 
the account of his splendid victory over the usurper, notwithstand- 
ing the most determined resistance of his enemy; but he bore 
testimony to the justice and reasonableness of his pretensions to a 
crown, which a former possessor had relinquished j; the excellent 
character of his antagonist was upheld, and the universal esteem 
in which he was held extolled : this confirmed the viceroy that 
King Quang-tung should be invited to court, where he was ready 
to do homage. It was also suggested that the late king would 
make a good mandarin. The court of Peking highly applauded 
this Arrangement : the deposed king accepted a mandarinship ; 
and an invitation was sent to the new king to repair to Peking. 
Doubts and uncertainty came over the mind of the usurping 
monarch, who, however, sent one of his generals, who was repre- 
sented as himself; contrary to expectation, the mock king was 
well received, invested by the Emperor, and loaded with presents. 
On his return, Quang-tung was greatly at a loss what to do, but 
the sequel was that the mock king was killed, as the surest way to 
preserve the secret. 



BRITISH OUGHT TO TRADE WITH COCHIN CHINA. 359 

lu the year 1832, there was rather a serious disturbance on 
the borders of Cochin China, in Taeping-foo, on the southern 
frontier of Kwang-si province : it is said to have commenced 
about the right of working coal-pits. Two Chinese officers, some 
civilians, and nearly one hundred soldiers, were killed. Appli- 
cation was made to Governor Le of Canton, by the Lieutenant- 
Governor of Kwang-si, for a detachment of troops to suppress the 
rioters. 

In 1833, a Chinese admiral was cruising off the island of 
Hainan, he was overtaken by a storm, and his fleet scattered. 
One of his vessels was driven on the coast of Cochin China. This 
vessel contained two high officers and seventy men. The King of 
Cochin China received them with great hospitality, giving to each 
officer five taels in money, and to each man two dollars. They 
were sent to Canton with a Cochin Chinese escort, who were 
provided with quarters, until an official reply of thanks should 
be sent to his majesty. The escort was accompanied by two 
junks laden with merchandise. The Gx)vemor of Canton sent a 
memorial to his imperial majesty, praying for a remission of the 
duties on this cargo, for their kindness to his naval officers. The 
Emperor consented to the prayer, and also granted permission 
to purchase return-cargoes duty free, as the goods were brought 
as ballast. 

Tte old king died in 1840 ; previous to which, a Cochin 
Chinese envoy went to Peking with " tribute *' once every two 
years. This year a notice appeared as follows : " in order to show 
forth kindness and benevolence to men from afar/' it has been 
signified by an imperial decree, that a visit once in four years 
shall suffice. 

We ought to establish commercial relations with Cochin China. 
Mr. Dundas, when President of the India Board, in 1792, had 
this important object in view when he despatched a letter from 
George III. to the King of Cochin China, by Lord Macartney, 
who, as previously stated, was hospitably received at Turon Bay, 
His lordship was rightly of opinion, that it would not be politic to 
deliver this letter to the King of Cochin China {nor the royal letter, 
of which he ivas also the bearer, to the Emperor of Japan), until the 
chief place of the mission, Peking, had been visited. On the re- 
turn of the British embassy to Canton, His Majesty^s ship, ^^Lion" 
seventy-four guns, which had conveyed the mission to China, was 
required to convoy the East India fleet to Europe, and the missives 
to Cochin China and Japan were, therefore, never delivered. We 
have ever since, most unaccountably, neglected these rich, import-^ 
ant, and extensive regions. 



800 POSITION AND HISTORY OP 8IAM. 



SIAM AND CHINA— INTERCOURSE. 

Siam, a considerable kingdom between 10^ and 14^ of north 
latitude, in the centre of the mat peninsula between the Bay of 
Bengal and China Sea, is bounded on the N. by tracts of country 
that are scarcely known to Europeans, which extend as far as Tibet 
and China ; on the S. by the Oulf of Siam and the Malay Penin- 
sula ; on the E. by a range of mountains which separate it from 
Cambodia and Cochin China ; and on the W. by the Burmese 
dominions. 

Previous to the encroachment of the Burmese, Siam was esti- 
mated to extend in length upwards of 800 miles, and about the 
same in breadth. 

The towns are built on the great river, Meinam, although there 
is a considerable extent of sea-coast, with numerous harbours, but 
the dread of cruel Malays, prevents the inhabitants settling on 
those eligible places. 

The natural resources of Siam are very great. The valley of the 
Meinam is periodically inimdated, to which circumstance is attri- 
buted the fertility of the soil. The inhabitants are like all others 
who reside under a despotic government ; in physical appearance 
thev bear some resemblance to the Chinese ; their numbers are 
variously estimated. The coimtry yields most abundant crops of 
rice, wluch is irrigated comparatively without any labour. 

The cultivated productions arrive at a high state of perfection : 
sugar is abundant and cheap; their coffee is excellent; so also 
the areka. The tamarind, pine-apple, banana, upwards of twenty 
species of mangoes, and various tropical fruits, abound. 

From 1567-1596, Siam was subject to Burmah. Contests for 
the throne distracted the country from 1690 till 1759; during 
this interval, about 1752, Alanyna, the foimder of the present 
Burman dynasty, overran the whole valley of the Meinam. 

Pyeya-tak, the son of a Chinese merchant, gathered followers, 
and successfully drove the Burmans from the country, and assumed 
the throne. Being devoted to commerce, he removed the metro- 
polis from Avuthia to Bankok. He reigned most successfully 
imtil his death, which took place in 1782. 

War between Siam and Cochin China, in 1841, lasted for two 
vears. There were armed mercenaries from Celebes and Borneo 
m the service of the belligerents ; some armed with muskets ; 
cannon, cavalry, chain or ring armour, were used in combat. The 
Siamese appear to have been vanquished. 

Of the political intercourse between Siam and China we know 
nothing certain ; their mercantile relations will be discussed under 
the trade of China; but it may be here observed, that this is 
another fine region which we have neglected, although, formerly, 
the East India Company had factori.es in Siam, as also in Cochm 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN BURMAH AND CHINA. 361 

China. We have^ it is true, a treaty with Siam^ made in 1821^ 
which is perfectly useless as regards the trade and intercourse at 
Bankok. 



BUKMAH AND CHINA— INTERCOURSE, WARS> AND 

TREATIES. 

As the dominions of the Emperor of China border those of the 
King of Ava, there have been hostilities, on several occasions, be- 
tween the two countries. A war, of four years duration, took place 
from 1765 to 1769, which is described, by Colonel Bumey, as one 
of great magnitude; but it is difficult to believe the bombastic 
accounts of the number of Chinese troops. The rivers which flow 
from China (Yun-nan province) into the Burmese territories, afford 
means of communication for traffic and intercourse. 

Six rivers flow from the Chinese province of Yun-nan into Bur- 
mah, viz. : the Manloo, Mangleen, Nanting, Loo-keang, Lung- 
chuen-keang, and Pinlang-keang. The Kewleng crosses the 
southern boundary of Yun-nan, in latitude 21° 40^ north, and 
about 15^ west of Peking. The Manloo and Mangleen flow south- 
ward before they cross the boundary of the province. The Nan- 
ting and Lung-chuen cross the southern line of Yun-nan, in about 
latitude 23° 45' north, between 18° and 19° west of Peking. The 
Pinlang leaves Yun-nan in the S.W. extremity of the province. 
The Irrawaddi flows some leagues further westward ; and is sup- 
posed, like the Salwen and the Mekon on the east, and the Brahma- 
putra on the west, to have its origin in those high regions of 
Central Asia, where the Yellow River and the Yangtzekang take 
their rise. 

It was along the southern line of Yun-nan, and on the borders 
of the previous mentioned rivers, and also on the Irrawaddi, that 
the battles between the Chinese and Burmese were fought. Mo- 
gaung is only five days journey west from Tsanta, and is situated 
in nearly 24^ 52' north latitude, and longitude 18° 20' west of Pe- 
king. As this war, between China and Burmah, so well illustrates 
the weakness and policy of the existing Tartar rulers^ some details 
will prove useful, although they may seem trifling; yet, as we 
know not how long China and Burmah may remain at peace, or 
how long we may remain in tranquil relations with the court of 
Ava, I am induced to give the native account as furnished by that 
able officer, Colonel Bumey. The war is said to have had its origin 
in the following circumstance: a Chinese came to Bamoo and 
Kyaing-toun, with 400 oxen laden with silk and other merchandise ; 
he applied to the Bamoo authorities for permission to construct a 
bridge, to the north of the village of Nanba, which would enable 
him to cross the Taepeng Biver. The authorities stated, that they 



863 WAB BBTWBXN BUBMAH AND CHINA. 

mtut ooniult tbeir superion at A?a. This answer did not please 
the Chinaman, Lo-li, and he became insolent. 

The Bamoo officers suspected that Lo-li was a Chinese spy, and 
sent him to Ayb, with a report of his disrespectfdl conduct. A 
searching enquiry was made into his character, and nothing of 
political importance appearing, he was sent back to Bamoo, with 
permission to trade, and likewise to build a bridge if he pleased. 
On his return, he charged the Bamoo authorities with plundering 
his goods. But the officer replied, that when he went to Ava he 
left nis men in charge of them, and, if there was any deficiency, 
he should look to his own people and not to the Burmese. 

Loli, then repaired to Mo-myin, and complained to the Chinese 
government of the charge brought against him, and of his pro- 
perb^ being plundered. He also reported this affair to the governor 
of Yun-nan, who promised to make enquiries. 

About this period an a£Eray took place between some Burmese 
and a Chinese caravan of upwards of 2,000 ponies, with a man, 
called Lotari, as chief, who had come to Eyaing-toun. The Bur- 
mese had bought some goods on credit, and refiised payment when 
demanded ; an affray took place, in which a Chinese was killed. 
The Burmese officers stated, that their law in such cases was, that 
the man who committed the murder should pay the price of life, 
viz. : 300 ticals. The money was refused, and the Chinese required 
that the viurderer should be delivered over to the Chinese govern- 
ment. This was also refused ; but the Burmese proposed to kill 
the guilty party, which was rejected as unsatisfactory. 

Lotari retired to China, and complained to the government of 
Yun-nan. This officer was, at the same time, urged to make war 
on Burmah, by some discarded chiefs of Ava, who had fled to 
China. A representation was made to Peking, that induced the 
Emperor to send an army to take possession of Kyaing-toun. 

The following notice was put up on a post on the bank of the 
Tolo River : " Deliver a man to us, in the room of our man who 
was killed, or we will attack you;'^ and verv soon afterwards a 
Chinese army, under Oeneral Yin-taloye, consisting of 50,000 foot 
and 10,000 horse, took Kyaing-toun — the Burmese governor having 
gone over to the Chinese forces. 

When the King of Ava heard of the invasion, he sent 21,000 
foot; 200 war-elephants, and 2,000 horse, under General LeUwe- 
weng-mhu, " left-hand royal entrance chief.'' 

On the 27th December, 1765, eleven divisions of troops ap- 
proached the town, and contrived to send m some men in disguise, 
and arrange a combined attack on the Chinese forces. 

The Chinese cavalry was charged by the Burmese with ele- 
phants, and soon driven to the baiiJks of the Tolo River, where they 
threw, up some mud defences. Here they were again attacked, 
and compelled to retreat to the banks of the Mekou, i. e. the 
Great Camboja River, where they were again successfully attack- 



CHINESE RO0T1SD BY BURMESE TROOPS. 363 

ed ; their general killed^ and the surviving portion of their army 
fled back to China in great disorder. 

In the beginning of 1767, the King of Ava, or Burmah, received 
intelligence that a Chinese army, consisting of 250,000 foot and 
25,000 horse, had entered his dominions, and that on their arrival 
near Shya-mue-loun mountain, to the westward of Mekon Eiver, 
better than one-half of the Chinese force had been sent against 
Bamoo. 

The Burmese monarch directed that two armies should proceed 
from Ava, one by water up the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, and the other 
by land route, to the westward of the river. 

On the 30th January, 1767, the land forces consisted of 22 divi- 
sions, containing 20,000 foot, 2,000 horse, and 200 elephants. The 
water force was 15,000 men, with 300 boats carrying guns, pro- 
ceeded up the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, where they arrived on the 4th 
February. 

The Chinese, leaving 3,000 horse and 30,000 foot to defend their 
stockade at Bamoo, advanced with 70,000 foot and !^t)00 horse, 
and invested Kyaing-toun, which they assaulted with scaling-lad- 
ders, axes, choppers, and ropes ; but the garrison met the assail- 
ants with a heavy fire of cannon, and large boilers of hot dammer 
and molten lead. The Chinese forces were driven back with great 
loss, declaring that the besieged were not men, but gnats. Not 
being enabled to force an entrance, the Chinese stockaded them- 
selves around the town, at a distance of about 140 cubits. 

The general of the Burmese forces, acting on the plan recom- 
mended by the governor of Kyaing-toun, moored his fleet of boats 
close along the western bank of the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, then 
landing his troops, under a heavy fire from his boats, he stormed 
and carried all the Chinese stockades. The Chinese general before 
Kyaing-toun, dispatched 1,000 horse in support of Bamoo, but the 
Burmese general placed 2,000 troops to prevent the Chinese cross- 
ing Len-bangya Biver, and the Chinese commander recalled them. 
The Burmese general was enabled to convey intelligence of the 
fall of Bamoo, to the governor of Kyaing-toun, and of his inten- 
tion to attack on a particular day the besieging force. At the 
appointed time the Chinese force before the town, was simultane- 
ously attacked, by nine divisions of the Burmese army, and at the 
same period by the besieged garrison ; after three days^ fighting, 
the whole of the Cliinese works before the town were taken. 

Ten Chinese generals, and more than 10,000 men, were stated 
to have been killed; the remainder fled to their main-body on 
Thin-yanuay-lein mountain. The Burmese followed and drove 
them as far as Mo-wun, taking a great quantity of arms, prisoners, 
and horses. 

On the Burmese general obtaining information that the Chinese 
had a force on Lizo mountain, consisting of 20,000 horse, and 
lOOjOOO foot, he ^nt six divisions of his army, round the right,^ 



8M CHINB8B DBriATBD WITH GBBAT 8LAUGHTBK. 

and an equal portion on the left side of the monntain ; and at the 
same time advanced, with ten diviaiona, up the centre route. The 
Chinese general advanced to meet the enemy, leaving one-third 
of hit army to protect his stockades, and posted himself on the 
eastern bank of the Nonnyen Biver. 

The Burmese force, under the JFun-gyiih, came up and joined 
the reconnoitring psrtrv on the western bank of the same river, 
whilst the right and left wings, which had reached the mountaiiii 
by marching round the rear of the Chinese main-army, attacked 
and carried the stockades there. 

The Chinese in those stockades, believing that their own force 
WM in firont of them, were so surprised that thev fled. The wings 
of the Burmese army subsequently fell in with another Chinese 
force, which was coming firom China with a convoy of provisions 
for their army, and took possession of all their horses, mules, and 
provisions. 

It was arranged, that on a given day, the two wings of the 
Burmese should attack the Chinese in the rear, at two separate 
places, whilst the main-body would cross the river, and attack them 
in front. The Chinese finding themselves hemmed in, retreated, 
but were followed, and completely routed. Upwards of lOO^OOO 
of the Chinese took up fresh quarters at Tsaiita, and there threw 
up new works. Here the Chinese were attacked by the combined 
forces of the King of Ava, and chased to their own territory Yun- 
nan, after a severe loss of men, arms, and horses. 

llie two Burmese generals attacked another Chinese force of 
upwards of 50,000 men, which was posted on a mountain to the 
north-east of Theinniy and only one-third of the Chinese escaped 
to their own coimtry. 

In November 1767, a Chiuese army consisting as is alleged of 
60,000 horse, and 680,000 foot, under the command of a son-in-law 
of the Emperor of China, named Myeng Khoun-ye, and his brother 
Tstt-taloy, entered the Burmese dominions by the Theinni route, 
accompanied by the ex-chief of that place ; 100,000 men were sent 
against Bapioo, but first attacked Theinni, when the governor and 
inhabitants evacuated the town. Myeng then advanced with 
30,000 horse, and 300,000 foot by the Thibo road, whilst the 
other Chinese general placed a strong garrison in Theinni, consist- 
ing of 20,000 horse, and 200,000 foot, and made arrangements for 
forwarding a supply of provisions to the army which was in 
advance. 

. The King of Ava^s force consisted of 80 war elephants, 8,000 
horse, and 80,000 foot. A second force was dispatched consisting 
of 200 war elephants, 2,000 horse, and 20,000 men. A third army 
amounted to 200 war elephants, 2,000 horse, and 10,000 men. 
. These immense armies are stated to have had many engagements; 
th^ Chinese on the first encounter were victorious. But the Bur* 



BURMESE OUTWIT THE TARTARS. 365 

mese from their superior knowledge of the country, and the infor- 
mation they procured, were enabled to out-general their enemies, 
by cutting off their supply of provisions, particularly water. The 
brother-in-law of the Emperor of China, cut his throat with his 
sword. 

The Chinese advanced army of 100,000 men, that had been sent 
against Bamoo, repeatedly attacked that place, but it was so well 
defended that they could not carry it, and after losing a great 
portion of their followers by famine, and hearing of the flight of 
the main-body, they raised the siege and escaped to China. The 
mountains and country around are said to have been covered with 
the dead bodies of the Chinese. 

For upwards of a year there was a cessation of hostilities between 
the two countries. 

In the latter part of 1769, a Chinese army of 56,000 horse and 
500,000 foot, was sent against the Burmese dominions. 

On the 21st October, the King of Ava sent a force of 100 
elephants, 1,200 cavalry, and 12,000 infantry ; and in three days 
afterwards, another force amounting to 52,000 men proceeded by 
water to Bamoo ; and in three days more, an additional force, by 
the road to the westward of the Irrawadi. 

The three Chinese generals on reaching a mountain to the 
north of Lizo, sent 10,000 horse, and 100,000 foot, to cut timber 
in the most convenient spot, and convey it to the banks of the 
Irrawadi, for the construction of war boats. A general with 
10,000 carpenters and sawyers, was left to accomplish this task. 

The main-army marched on towards Bamoo, and after throwing 
up stockades at Shue-myaung-beng, twelve miles to the east of 
Kaung-toun, and leaving 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse to defend 
them, the remainder of the army, amounting to 80,000 horse and 
800,000 foot, under the other two generals, advanced and invested 
Kaung-toun towards the land side. Also 500 boats, as soon as 
they were built, were brought down aM placed on the river-side, 
with 60^000 men. Notwithstanding the most vigorous efforts on 
the side of the besiegers, they "were unable to take the town ; neither 
by land or water could they make any impression. It is unneces- 
sary to detail the several engagements, which were very similar to 
those of the last war. 

The Burmese generals, as usual, outwitted the Tartars, who are 
too self-sufficient even to derive wisdom from experience, and who 
are no match for the physicial courage of the Burmese. One of 
the stratagems of the Burmese general was to march several 
thousands of his army over rivers, in the daytime, and bring them 
back at night, and thus pretend that he was contmually advancing 
fresh forces. The Chinese generals called a council of war, and 
after each described their several defeats by land and water, and 
weighing every matter, it was resolved to depute a mission to the 



866 PSACB BBTWXIN BURMESE AND CHINESE. 

Burmese campi in order to open a negotiation of peace. The fol- 
lowing Cliinese letter was accordingly sent to the Burmese 
general. 

" When we three were i4>pointed to march to Ava b^ three dif- 
ferent routes^ and were about to commence our march in the year 
1129, (1767-8) the (Burmese) general sent eight Chinese with a 
letter, stating that all sentient beings desired rest. We therefore 
delayed our march a year. Even now we should be happy to see 
our dispute settled, which it will not be for years, if we go on 
fighting. We are not come because we want the Burmese dominions. 
If the sun-descended King (of Ava) sends presents as was the 
former custom, we shall send presents in return. Our master the 
Emperors orders are : *fiffht tf they fight; or make peace \f then 
make peace.' We three generals, desirous of settling this dispute, 
have come with a moderate force only. 

** In our Chinese country we are not accustomed to say more 
than one word, and are used to speak with truth and sincerity 
only. 

" The present war has arisen from the circumstance of the chiefs 
of Thinni, Bamoo, Mo-gaung, and Kyaung-toun, having come and 
invited us. We will deliver up the chiefs, subjects of the sim-des- 
cended king, who are now in China : and after the (Burmese) ge- 
neral has delivered up to us all the Chinese officers who are in his 
hands, let him submit to the ^ sun-descended king and great lord 
of righteousness,' and we will also submit to our master, the ' Em- 
peror and Lord of righteousness,' that the two great countries may 
continue on the same terms as they always were before; that fdl 
sentient beings may be at rest ; that there be no war ; and that 
the gold and silver road may be opened." 

Several interviews took place, and a second letter was sent from 
the Chinese camp, which was represented to be written by a son 
of the Emperor of China. 

One of the Burmese generals only was for peace, and he under- 
took to take the responsibility on himself, should the King of 
Ava be displeased. On the 18th December, 1769, fourteen Bur- 
mese and thirteen Chinese officers met in a large shed, which was 
erected for the purpose, near the town of Kaung-toun. The 
Burmese demanded their chiefs first, but the Chinese envoys took 
an oath that they were not in the camp, but would be returned 
within six months. 

The Burmese negotiators, after receiving the following treaty, 

S plied to the Chinese for the boats which were at Eaung-toun. 
He Chinese promised after they made use of these boats to bring 
up their stores to Bamoo, they should be given up to the Burmese. 
When the Chinese had done with the boats, they were burned 
by order of the generals, and a serious difference of opinion took 
place on this breach of faith. However, matters were finally ar- 
ranged, and the Chinese army were conducted out of the Burmese 



TREATY BETWEEN BURMAH AND CHINA. 367 

dominions^ by a veiy large force^ who kept a close watch on them. 

The Chmese armies having long suffered from want of provisions, 
those men only who were able-bodied, succeeded in reaching 
China, and the forests and mountains were spread with countless 
numbers, who died on the route from starvation. 

The following is a translation of the treaty entered into on this 
occasion between China and Burmah. 

" 13th December 1769 a.d. 

'' His Excellency the general of the lord who rules over a multi- 
tude of umbrella-wearing chiefs in the great western kingdom, 
the sun-descended king of Ava, and master of the golden palace, 
having appointed (here follow the names and titles of the fourteen 
Burmese officers) they assembled in the large building to the S.E. 
of the town of Kaimg-toun, to negotiate peace and friendship 
between the two great countries, and that the gold and silver road 
should be established agreeably to former custom. The troops of 
the sun-descended king and master of the golden palace of Ava, 
and those of the master of the golden palace of China, were drawn 
up in front of each other, when this negotiation took place; and 
alter its conclusion, each party made presents to the other, agree- 
ably to former custom, and retired. All men, the subjects of the 
sun-descended king and master of the golden palace of Ava, who 
may be in any part of the dominions of the master of the golden 
palace of China, shall be treated according to former custom. 
Peace and friendship being established between the two great 
countries, they shall become one, like two pieces of gold united 
into one ; and suitably to the establishment of the gold and silver 
road, as well as agreeably to former custom, the princes and 
officers of each country shall move their respective sovereign, to 
transmit and exchange affectionate letters on gold, once every ten 
years.'' 

On the 6th May, 1787, an embassy arrived from China to the 
King of Ava, and was weU received. 

On the 10th June, 1787, an embassy from the King of Ava, 
accompanied the returning embassy to China with magnificent 
presents for the Emperor. 

On the 20th of October, 1790, an embassy arrived from China 
to the King of Ava, vi4 Yun-nan province, with valuable presents^ 
and three Chinese princesses for his Majesty, who conferred on 
each, a Burmese title. 

A.n. 1822. In the second year of the reign of the present Em- 
peror, an embassy waA sent to the King of Ava, with some presents, 
amongst which were a male and female ass, with bridles and 
saddles. 

AlD. 1823. An embassy from the King of Ava to the Emperor 
of China, was sent on the 15th August, 1823, and arrived at Pd^ing 
22nd January, 1824. Between Ava and Peking the distance is 



868 CHINB8E INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPE. 

set down by the Burmese as 6,944,000 cubits, on which they say 
there are fifty-nine cities, sixty villages, and 120 stages. 

A.D. 1833. An exchange of embassies between China and 
Burmah, with letters breathing the most sincere and friendly 
attachment towards each other. The Emperor of China, in his 
letter states he is in amicable relations with various kingdoms and 
countries. I cannot find any further trace of political intercourse 
between Burmah and China ; trade is carried on extensively in 
caravans between the two countries. 



CHAPTER XL 

INTERCOURSE OF CHINA WITH PORTUGAL, SPAIN, 
HOLLAND, FRANCE, RUSSIA, AND AMERICA. 



An examination of the intercourse between China and the Wes- 
tern nations for the last two centuries, will illustrate the policy of 
the government of Pekin, and it will serve as a guide in our ftiture 
communications with the Tartar authorittes, who have still a very 
impei&ct idea of the distinguishing characteristics, position, or 
strength of each nation. TIus is partly shown by the following 
translaticm of a Chinese document, issued at the commencement of 
the recent war with England, and which was written with refer- 
ence to the opium vessels : — 

'' There are three nations of the outside fiveigners, trading at 
Canton, who store up and sell opium; namely, — the English, other- 
wise caUed ' the red-bristled/ 

" India is that dependency of the ' red^bristled* nation where 
opium is produced : the people (Parsees) are vulgariy called ' white^ 
headed devihJ 

*' The American, otherwise called the ' flower flag^ nation, buy 
their opium from India. 

" Those nations trading at Canton which do not sell opium are 
the following : — France, Holland, and Spain. The above- three 
nations now come and trade at Canton. 

Denmark, otherwise called — Hhe great yellow flag:' Sweden, 
otherwise called — 'the little yellow flag.' These two nations have 
not traded with China for a long time. 

'^ Austria traded hither in the first year of Taoukwang. Pm»* 



CHINESE DESCRIPTION OF FOREION NATIONS. ^ 369 

fosk traded hither in the eighth year of Taoukwang, Hamburg 
traded hither in the third year of Taoukwang. Alin (?) traded 
hither in the fourth year of Taoukwang. A report was made re- 
specting this country fAlin ?J which is on record^ and since then 
its merchants have not been allowed to frequent our market. 

'' Russia : ships of this nation came to Canton in the nineteenth 
year, but were not allowed to trade. 

*' ' The names of foreigners who sell opium.' These names we 
decline translating, as in so doing we shall not give any new infor- 
mation to our readers. 

^'The foreign store-ships, large and small, do not belong only to 
the ^red-bristled/ or English, many of them are country ships 
from India; the next in degree are the Americans. 

'' Some of them carry ports on two, some on three decks. Ge- 
nerally speaking on each deck are seven or eight guns mounted on 
each side. The smaller vessels canying ports on one deck, have 
their guns on their upper, or only deck, and their number does 
not exceed five or six. The guns are generally of copper ; the 
largest weighing from two to three thousand, the next in size be- 
tween one and two thousand, and the smallest, near a thousand 
catties. There are not any guns on the forecastle, but on the taff- 
rail there are some copper swivels. 

''All these ships, without distinction of nations, store up and 
seU opium; when they have sold their opium they proceed to 
TVhampoa, load with goods, and return home. 

''Each of these ships carries three masts, and they all have flags. 
The English hoist a white banner, at the upper part of which tUn 
red cross lines are drawn (St. George's ensign). The country 
ships hoist the English flag. The ' flower flag' (nation) hoist a red 
flag, on which is drawn the Pih-meufa (the flower of the Prune :) 
i. e. the stars and stripes. When they are not under weigh they 
do not hoist their flags." 

The map of Europe, which Commissioner Lin had prepared by 
some "half-caste" Portuguese, who acted as his secretary, was 
ludicrously incorrect. 

It is to be feared that the experience which the Chinei^e have as 
yet had of the western nations, has not been such as to impress 
them generally with any other idea but that of powerful " barbar- 
ians ;" desirous of gain, and not over scrupulous as to the means 
used for its acquisition. 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE PORTUGUESE AND 

CHINESE. 

The Portuguese passed the Cape of Good Hope towards the 
close of the fifteenth century ; secured a footing on the western 
chores of Asia, and took possession of Goa. 

2 B 



370 PORTUGUESE MISSION TO FEKEN. 

A.D. 151 1 . Mallacca was occupied, and Raphael Perestralo, having 
heard of the land of Kathay, (China,) through the wrxtings, it is 
supposed, of Marco Polo, sailed in a junk from Mallacca to China. 

A squadron sailed from Lisbon in 1518, to convey an ambassa- 
dor to China, without any preyious intercourse, except the know- 
ledge acquired from the Portuguese viceroy in the East Indies. 
As soon as the squadron arrived at Canton, it was surrounded with 
Chinese boats; the commander, Ferdinand Andrada, invited the 
Chinese on board, and communicated the object of his voyage to 
the Mandarins, who welcomed him, and sent the ambassador to 
Peking, without any hesitation or delay • 

Perez, the ambassador, found the court at Peking well disposed 
to enter into his views. He visited all the coast, and traded with 
the natives. On his return to Canton, a treaty of commerce was 
to be ratified, when an unfortunate occurrence took place. 

Simon Andrada, (a brother of the commander of the squadron,) 
appeared on the Chinese coast, with a squadron, whose object was 
piracy and plunder. His treatment of the Chinese, was in unison 
with what the Portuguese had, for a long time previous, perpe- 
trated on all the people of Asia, viz. : making slaves of young and 
old. He built a fort on the island of Taywan, from whence he 
pillaged or extorted money from every vessel proceeding to the 
port of Canton. In consequence of tiiese unjust measures, the 
Chinese government imprisoned the Portuguese ambassador. By 
others the cause of this treatment is ascribed to a different source: 
it is said that the Portuguese, at a very early period of their settle- 
ment, were called to render homage and tribute to the Emperor 
of China. Thomas Perez and Femao Andrade set out for Peking, 
to pay tribute to the Emperor. A subject of the late Sultan of 
Mallacca, was then residing at Peking, and claimed protection 
against the Portuguese, who had a few years previous taken from 
his royal master, (a vassal of China,) the Mallacca territory. The 
Emperor requested the Portuguese to restore the Sultan his domi- 
nion, which request was slighted. The numerous Mohammedan 
merchants then at Canton, disclosed the true character of the Por- 
tuguese, in wishing to monopolise all trade to themselves. 

The government of Canton accordingly wrote to the Emperor 
thus : " The Portuguese have no other design than to come under 
the denomination of merchants, to spy the country, that they may 
hereafter fall on it with fire and sword.*' 

The Sultan of Mallacca urged the Emperor to use his influence, 
for the Portuguese to restore Mallacca. A tribunal was appointed 
to try if the embassy was genuine or spurious. Perez and his 
attendants were condemned as spies, and sent from Peking to 
Canton, prisoners. The restoration of Mallacca, was the condition 
on which their lives were to be spared. After six years' absence, 
they were all executed in 1523. 

A.D. 1553. The next embassy recorded, was undertaken by the 



PORTtr^UESB OCCUPATION OF MACAO^ 1560. 87l 

celebrated Francis Xavier, his object was to introduce Christianity. 
When the embassy arrived at Mallacca^ the valuable presents des- 
tined for the Emperor of China, excited, it is supposed, the cupidity 
of the Portuguese authorities, and the project was abandoned. 

A.D. 1560. A Jesuit writing of this period, states, that between 
five and six hundred Portug]ftes6 merchants were residing con- 
stantly at Lam-pa-co. Subsequently their general rendezvous was 
Macao, where, under the pretext of drying their goods, permission 
was granted to erect sheds ; and by degrees learning the ruling 
passion of Chinese magistrates, bribes obtained for them permis- 
sion to build good houses at Macao. 

A.D. 1582. It was not until this year, that these " foreign bar- 
barians'' attracted the notice of the Canton authorities, notwith- 
standing their numbers had greatly increased. Destruction was 
threatened in the usual manner; but the Portuguese were liberal 
in their presents, and the Tartars not being on the throne, their 
presumption was overlooked. 

A.D. 1687. The Portuguese resolved to build a wall across the 
isthmus, which separates Macao from the island of Heangshan. 
Through this barrier is a pass which is guarded by Chinese soldiers : 
a civil Mandarin was appointed to govern the Portuguese. It was 
erroneously supposed that the Portuguese w.ere independent of 
the Chinese authority, until a very late period. The contrary was 
known through an edict in the Peking Gazette of the year 1810, 
on which occasion the Portuguese oflPered their services, to aid the 
authorities in putting down piracy : the answer to that proposal 
clearly proved their position. The amount paid annually, as rent, 
to the present day is 500 taels per annum. 

A.D. 1582. The trade was open to the Portuguese once or twice 
each year at Canton, and the duties were accepted in imported 
goods, until this year, when silver was demanded. The annual 
present, paid at Canton, was 12,000 dollars, and on their exports 
they paid six per cent. 

Some idea may be formed of the defenceless state of the Chinese 
empire, about 1630, when Bodrigues, the Jesuit missionary, was 
sent from Peking to Macao, to obtain aid from the Portuguese, to 
resist the Tartars. Between three and four hundred soldiers were 
furnished on this occasion, but the Tartars were repulsed before 
their arrival at the scene of action. This timely aid has never been 
acknowledged in any shape. 

A.D. 1662. The Emperor, Kang-he, finding the pirates could 
not be subdued, tried a novel plan, viz. : by commanding the inha- 
bitants of the maritime provinces to level their dwellings, and re- 
move into the interior of the country, not less than twelve miles ; 
he likewise 'suspended all navigation to the southward. The posi- 
tion of Macao, brought it under this edict ; but through the inter- 
cession of Father Schaal, the town of Macao was exempted, on the 

2 B 2 



87ft POKTUOUE8E BRIDES AND PSBSENTB. 

condition tliat all nangation should be suspended* Fresh restric- 
tions were laid on the Portuguese, and to cany on any kind of 
trade, they were compelled to pay enormouB bribes to Chinese 
admirals. 

The governor of Macao sent the following letter to the Emperor, 
with presents, in the hope of getling some indulgence : 

*' High and Mighty Lord, 

'' The Portuguese of Macao, who govern the place, Vicente 
Rosa, and with all the others, have always received immense favours 
of your Imjierial Majesty, whose name fills all the world ; and lately 
a new one has been bestowed upon us, by not being included in the 
prohibition of navigating the southern seas ; we have more than ten 
thousand mouths to provide for. To shew in some way our thank- 
fulness, we have selected a few articles, which we transmit to the 
viceroy, begging him to have the goodness to present them to your 
Imperial Majesty, and we shall be very happy/' 

" 1st March, 1719/' 

LIST or PRXSBMTS SENT. 

Fortv-eight bottles of wine; forty-eight bottles of snuff ; ten jars 
of peaches, pears, &c; one box of pastiles, perfumed; twelve glass- 
bottles of ahnonds ; twelve ounces stone, ^' jasper Anthcmy" ; four 
printed calico covers ; four pieces of white cloth ; four firelocks 
from Europe ; two cases of knives ; one box of Peruvian bark; one 
box of Roman thread ; one box of divine plaster ; one box of tartar 
of white wine ; one box of ipecacuanha ; and two rolls of gold lace. 

In order to obtain a removal of local oppression, the viceroy of 
Goa proposed an embassy to Peking, in the name of King Alfonso 
VI. The inhabitants of Macao were put to the expenses of this 
mission, which cost upwards of 30,000 taels. Every humiliating 
ceremony was performed that was required ; their boats were called 
" tributary'' vessels : but the mission was a complete failure, and a 
request was sent to King Alfonso, not to intercede in their behalf 
with the government of China, as it only made bad worse. 

The Emperor, Yung-ching, was so annoyed with disputes and 
contention between the several orders of missionaries; Jesuits, Do- 
minicans, Augustines, and Capuchins, that he forbade the exercise 
of Christianity throughout his dominions. 

A.n. 1726. In this state of affairs, a mission was sent from Por- 
tugal to Peking, with valuable presents, the Portuguese ambassa- 
dor received from the Emperor a cup of wine, and several dishes 
from his table ; every politeness and attention were as usual paid to 
strangers from afar. Presents were returned to the king. The 
inhabitants of Macao were taxed to the amount of 88,000 taels. 
Not a single advantage was gained. A watchful eye was at all 
times kept on Macao by the Chinese. Yung-ching, in a short 



CHINS8X DICTATE TERMS TO THE POBTUQUESE. 89^8 

time after the last embassy was at Peking^ restricted the number 
of vessels to twenty^-five annually. 

A.D. 1750. About this period the Chinese proposed twelve arti- 
cles of agreement^ to which the Portuguese were to subscribe, or 
leave the empire. They were as foUows : — 

Article Ist. '^ Any Chinese of bad behaviour shall be turned out 
of Macao ; the Portuguese governor (Procurator) shall be answer- 
able to the Chinese authority for any vagrant he permits to remain 
at Macao. Moreover, the chief of the Chinese, at Macao, shall 
have power to examine into the characters of the inhabitants, and 
if he discovers that any have returned that were banished, the 
chief of the Chinese shall call the procurator to account for neglect 
of duty. 

2nd. '^ The procurator shall make a return of all boats, boatmen, 
and boatwomen, to the mandarin^ that he may grant them per-* 
mission to ply, on getting security for their good conduct : all boats 
shall remain at night at that part of the beach, close to the Hoppo 
house, and care must be taken that they do not clandestinely con- 
vey European merchants to Canton. The mandarin shall order 
four soldiers to see that the boats have no lurking places, and if 
discovered, they and the procurator shall be punished. 

3rd. " The Chinese shop-keepers shall not give any credit to 
the Caffirs, neither shall they be permitted to buy anything from 
them ; any one disobeying shall be expelled from Macao. 

4th. '^ Chinese walking out at night, with or without their 
lamps, shall not be molested by European soldiers; but any 
Chinese that is about mischief or bad actions when made pri- 
soner, shall be handed over to the mandarin, who shall punish 
him according to his delinquency. The procurator shaU neither 
detain nor punish him. 

5th. " AH Europeans guilty of homicide, or other crimes pu- 
nishable with death, shall be handed over to the mandarin for ex- 
amination ; and likewise the dead body, that he may examine it. 
After the inquest, the delinquent will be handed over to the man- 
darin of Casa-banca, and when found guilty, the district mandarin, 
accompanied by the senate, shall assist at the execution. 

6th. '' Europeans guil^ of crimes deserving banishment, shall 
be tried singly by the Chinese judge, at Macao ; and, when sen- 
tenced, handed over to the senate to have the same carried into ex- 
ecution. Offences of less magnitude the senate may decide on, 
and then inform the mandarin, whose sanction renders the punish- 
ment of the convicted lawful. 

7th. ^ Should any of the Chinese refuse to pay his debts to 
Europeans, or should he insult an European, the mandarin will 
have the case examined and punished ; but it is strictly forbidden 
that Europeans shall correct Chinese subjects at their fancy. 

8th. ** Prohibits the building of any new houses or churches, 
and permits the old ones to be repaired ; requires a return to be 



874 B&IBS8 MORS BPFBCTITE THJIN FBE8BNT8. 

made of all those at present standiDg ; new ones erected after tbis 
treaty to be demolished ; a violation of this article is a crime of 
great magnitude. 

9th. " Neither Chinese^ nor Europeans, are permitted to sdl 
sons and daughters of Chinese birth. 

10th. '' Proyidesi that all CSiinese^ EuropeanSj or slaves, ehai^ 
with the crime of stealing, shall be tried by the mandarin, and the 
punishment carried into effect by the senate. 

1 Ith, '' Forbids European villains^ both men and womra, to 
harbour Chinese rogues, and encourage them in stealing and 
gambling; all who do will be punished most seyerely. 

12th. *' Prohibits Europeans firom rambling into the countiy 
parts, disturbing the inhabitants under the pretence of hunting; as 
this is a violation of the ancient law, the heads of the villages may 
detain them, and hand them over for punishment. 

13th. " Though all the Europeans at Macao are Christians ; 
nevertheless, it is not permitted to induce Chinese to bec(»ne con- 
verts, because it pollutes the habits and the heart : the senate, and 
the chief of the Chinese at Macao, must pay strict attention in 
visiting each house, to see that none become Christians; both 
teachers and converts shall be severely punished, likewise the pro- 
curator." 

To obtain relief from these hard terms, the King of Portugal was 
solicited to send an ambassador to China. The description given 
of the magnificence of this embassy, shews that it surpassed aU the 
others sent to Peking ; but the result was similar, and appears to 
be the last effort to conciliate the favour of the Chinese govern- 
ment. 

The loss of trade through their narrow, selfish policy followed, 
and the authorities at Macao, at length, foimd out that half the 
sums spent on embassies to Peking, would have produced far more 
useful results had they been paid in bribes to the authorities at 
Canton. 

The degraded state into which the Portuguese had fallen in 
China, is manifested by an address to the Chinese authorities, 
asking permission, in the most abject terms, to aid the Chinese 
government against pirates, as follows : — 

" Michael de Arriaga, Brum de Silviera, and John Joaquim de 
Barros, messengers from the Portuguese nation, presume, with the 
deepest reverence, to wish his Excellency the Commander-in-cUef 
of Canton, ten thousand blessings, and profound tranquillity. With 
heartfelt gratitude, the Portuguese acknowledge tlmt they have 
received the boundless favours of the Emperor, in permitting them 
to reside at Macao ; and moreover, in allowing twenty^five ships to 
pass to and fro, by the profits arising from which they are nou- 
rished; and while they tread the earth, and eat its herbs, they 
continue to receive favours beyond bounds. 

" Hitherto, for more than two centuries, the Portuguese have 



DEGRADATION OF PORTUGUESE IN CHINA. 875 

• 

Kved in peace, until when the pirates have become outrageous and 
cruel, to the detriment of trade. 

'^ Lifting up our eyes, we behold the majesty and virtue of the 
august Emperor, widely diffused over the world, and the hearts of 
ten thousand nations turned toward his majesty; and in the great 
qualities of your Excellency, in your determination to cherish the 
good, and punish the wicked. Looking up to you with grateful 
hearts, we behold the just depository of power, and the high attri- 
butes to fulfil the important trust reposed in you by the great 
Emperor. 

" In this province the war-boats are fitting out for the chastise- 
ment of the pirates. Now, therefore, we, Michael de Arriaga, Sec, 
desire to equip six sail of ships to fight conjointly with the royal 
war-boats of the heavenly empire : the Portuguese soldiers are 
brave, and their warlike supplies abundant ; and, therefore, in fit- 
ting out the ships for the intended service, no greater sum than 
thirty thousand taels will be required ; we have, therefore, pre- 
sented this address, in order to obtain a loan of that amount, to 
be repaid in five years. 

' " So late as last month, vessels of the Portuguese beat off a 
division of the pirate fieet, and rescued a number of merchant- 
vessels from destruction. The mandarins at Bocca Tigris knew 
this ; nay, they were themselves witnesses of the services of the 
Portuguese ; upon whom, nevertheless, is poured obloquy. It is 
even said that the Portuguese have not the means to equip their 
vessels with either men or ammunition. Those who hold such 
vilifying language, only speak thus to obtain an opportunity to 
benefit themselves by the injury of others. 

" Prostrate, we finally beseech your Excellency to condescend 
80 far as to grant our request ; to that end this address is pre- 
sented, under the standards of his Excellency the Commander-in- 
chief, that he, in his benevolence, may grant that it be done as 
requested. Kia, Kia, 14th year, 10th moon." 

The following is the answer of the Chinese chief: — 

" It appears, that foreigners have lived at Macao for upwards of 
200 years, during which time they have looked up, humbly de- 
pendent on the favour of the great Emperor, and have received 
favours far exceeding what have been granted to the merchants of 
other nations. They humbly request that they may be allowed to 
go forth to battle with our armed boats ; it is their intention to be 
the enemies of our enemies, and this is highly proper and com- 
mendable. I have ordered out many great officers, and affairs will 
be speedily restored to tranquillity. The aid of the said foreigners 
is not necessary ; but as they ask only to accompany our war-boats, 
it is granted for the present time only, that the ships of the said 
foreigners may e^ert themselves^ and fQr which they shall be 



376 CHINV8B GRANT FAVUCRABLB TERMS TO P0RTY7OUS8K. 

abundantly rewarded according to their desert. Tliua the reply is 
delivered/' 

During our recent war with China, the Peking government sent 
instructions to the Portuguese, no longer to permit the English to 
dwell in or resort to MacaOi and we were accordingly obliged to 
retire firom Macao, as the Governor declared he dared not resist the 
commands he had received, and he was unable to protect the Eng- 
lish. Our success has, however, obtained from the Emperor oi 
China better terms for the Portij^guese than they themselves coold 
acquire, as shown by the accompanying translation of a ratification 
of the regulations between China and Portugal in 1845 : — 

1st. "The official correspondence between the procurator of the 
senate, and the local native authorities, shall be conducted on terms 
of mutual equality. 

2nd. " llie tonnage-dues on the twenty-five registered ships 
shall be paid according to the new tariff, the same as on European 
vessels at Whampoa, with a deduction of one-and-a-half mace per 
ton, which makes three-and-a-half mace of silver for eyery ton. 
All ships that visit Macao, and are not registered, shall continue 
to pay the tonnage-dues of the new tariff, viz. : five mace per ton. 
All ships numbered, or not numbered, that shall visit the five ports 
(now open to the foreign trade, viz. : Canton, Amoy, Fuchoo, 
Ningpo, and Shanghae), shall also pay tonnage-dues according to 
the new tariff, at five mace per ton. 

8rd. " The duty on goods imported, or exported, (in Portuguese 
bottoms), by Chinese merchants, shall be paid to the hoppo 
(Chinese custom house) of Macao, according to the new tariff; 
and goods not mentioned in the said tariff, shall be charged ten 
or twenty per cent., ad valorem, according to their quality, without 
any additional charge. The Portuguese lorchas, furnished with 
passports, are permitted to go up to Canton on paying the tonnage- 
dues, according to the new regulations established for cargo-boats. 
N.B. — ^The burden of these lorchas havins been agreed upon at 
75 tons for the smallest, and 150 for the largest, and those not 
exceeding the latter figure shall be charged one mace per ton 
every time they enter the port ; and those measuring more than 
150 tons, shall be charged as vessels navigating the high seas, five 
mace per ton; and lorchas measuring under 75 tons, shall be 
charged the same as those of that burden. 

4th. '^ The Portuguese shall be allowed to buy the necessaij 
materials, and employ workmen of their own choice, whenever th^ 
shall find it necessary to construct new buildings, or vessels, or 
repair the old ones, without requiring chops, or Ucenses, fixxn the 
local authorities ; all fees and additional expenses which the men 
hitherto have been in the habit of payings being abolished. 

5th. " Portuguese ships shall be allowed to go and trade at 
Canton, Amoy, Fuchoo, Ningpo, and Shanghae, provided they 
are subject to the regulations of the new tariff, with respect to the 



INTERC0UE8E BETWEEN SPANIARDS AND CHINESE. 877 

payment of duties on goods^ and the tonnage dues; with regard to 
Fuchoo^ however, that port not being yet opened to European 
commerce, the Portuguese vessels must keep from it for purposes 
of trade, until it shall be open to all other European foreign 
nations. [Fuchoo is now opened.] 

6th. '^The number and quality of goods which the Chinese 
merchants are in the habit of importing into Macao are unlimited. 
Such goods as must pass through the Canton custom-house, shall 
then pay the duties according to the new tariflF, and when sent 
down for exportation must be accompanied with a certificate of 
clearance from the said custom-house. All such goods as have 
not passed through that custom-house shall pay duties to the hoppo 
of Macao. 

Published by order of the most illustrious and loyal senate ; and 
extracted from the dispatches last received from the Imperial 
Commissioner of Canton, dated 13th April, and received the 5th 
May, 1845. Jaze Martinho Marquis, interpreter. 

[For fiirther details, see Macao description.] 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE SPANIARDS 

AND CHINESE. 

The earliest intercourse recorded between China and Spain, was 
by the second fleet sent firom Spain after the discoveries of Magel- 
lan. This fleet sailed from Cevatlanejo, a.d. 1528, under the 
command of Alvaro de Saavedia, and on reaching the coast of 
Mindanao, heard that part of the crew of the Magellan fleet had 
been sold as slaves to the Chinese. 

In 1571, Manilla was made the chief city of Spanish trade by 
the governor and commander Legaspi, who was desirous of opening 
a trade with China, then monopolised by the Portuguese. The 
wreck of some Chinese junks on the coast of Mindora, afforded 
him a good opportunitj. The Mindorians confiscated the property 
found with t^ Chinese, but Legaspi compelled them to give up 
the spoil, and on dismissing the Chinese^ assured them of a hearty 
welcome to ^e free part of Manilla, and promised Mexican silver for 
their goods. The following year brought several Chinese junks to 
Manilla, with valuable cargoes, which were speedily exchanged for 
silver, and on their return, letters and presents were sent to the 
Viceroy of Foo-keen province. 

A.D. 1573. The iimmt colony of the Phillipines was soon dis- 
turbed by pirates. According to Chinese history, about this period 
the Chinese authorittes had silenced their pirates, by the reward of 
office to the leadera; but one of them was unpurehasable, and he 
speedily turned his attention to Manilla. The leader of this band 
was a Japanese, named Idmoon, who commanded 70 junks, manned 



878 CHIN18B MISSION TO MANILLA. 

with 2|000 daring seamen^ cliicfly Chinese. On his arrival at 
Manilla he landed GOO meni and set the town on fire^ by which the 
mititary commandant De-gayti and many others lost their lives. 
The unexpected retnm of a Spanish officer from a northern expe- 
dition, speedily routed the pirates. This was thought a good op- 
portunity to send an embassy to China ; accordingly, two of the 
clergy were despatched on the mission, but did not return until the 
following year, when a new governor had arrived from Spain. 
The Chinese sent back with the two Spanish envoys an authorised 
officer, to accept the proposition of the Spanish government, and to 
form the terms of commercial intercourse with the Spaniards. 
'The new governor had taken a different view of Chinese alliancei 
and coldly received the Chinese envoy, who was naturally disap- 
pointed, as he had been given to understand that MamUawas 
paved with silver and gold, neither of which he handled. Two 
Spanish monks returned with the envoy to China, and when clear 
of the harbour of Manilla, and contiguous to a wild part of the 
coast, near Cape Bolinao, they were cruelly beaten, stripped naked, 
and left on shore. The Spanish authorities were however too 
anxious to cultivate a trade ooth with China, and other surround- 
ing countries, to take any notice of this outrage. Junks from 
China arrived regularly from the first invitation of Legaspi. The 
massacre of the Chinese by the Spaniards is so remarkable, and 
so much involved in perplexing statements, that it deserves special 
notice. 

. A.D.' 1602. Three Mandarins arrived in Manilla, on a mission 
from the Emperor of China, to discover a mountain of gold, which 
His Maiesty was informed was on that island. The governor 
imagined that the reason assigned was only a pretence for some 
ulterior designs, treated the Mandarins very unceremoniously, and 
dismissed them. On their departure, distrust and hatred were en- 
gendered amongst the Spaniards, against all the Chinese colonists, 
who were the chief support of the place; their number being 
about 20,000, and that of the Spanish residents not 800. The first 
law of nature induced the Chinese to combine for mutual safety; 
they declared themselves innocent of any hostile designs against 
the Spaniards ; many fled and committea suicide. In the course 
of a few months very few of the 20,000 Chinese were left alive ; the 
victory, or rather butchery, was ascribed to the " visible presence^' 
of the Spanish patron. Saint iVands, who " enabled them to direct 
their fire-arms with certainty.^' An embassy was despatched from 
Manilla, to explain the cause of the slaughter of the Chinese. The 
Viceroy of Foo-keen, on hearing the Spanish story, displayed au 
entire indifference for the loss of his countrymen ; the friends of 
the deceased and the merchants exhibited a similar disregard on 
the matter, and to prove what a slight impression it had produced 
on them, thirteen junks richly laden, were despatched to Manilla, 
att soon as the monsoon would permit. The desire for gain sent 



SPANIARDS MASSACRE ALL THE CHINESE. 379 

fortli swarms of adventurers from China^ and in 1639 the Chinese 
colonists at Manilla^ had increased by fresh emigration to the 
number pf 33^000^ whose numbers were again reduced by another 
massacre^ for which it is difficult to ascertain the cause. It began 
on the shores of the Laguna-de Bay^ and was continued through 
every town on the island ; it does not appear to have been a con-^ 
test^ but a prolonged murder for four months ; 2^,000 Chinese 
perished. The loss on the side of the Spanish^ amounted to only 
330, which sufficiently indicates the resistance offered by the unfor- 
tunate Chinese. Rapacity and jealousy must have instigated this 
murderous attack, on a people whose commercial activity was of the 
greatest value to the settlement. The Spaniards allege that the 
Chinese fomented a rebellion, and refused allegiance to the autho- 
rities at Manilla. After this destruction of the settlers, the num- 
ber of Chinese permitted to reside in the Phillippine Islands was 
limited by law to 6,000, and a capitation tax was levied on them, to 
the extent of six dollars per head. That the Spaniards stood in 
great fear of the Foo-Keen " Chin-chew men,^^ (see page 33) is evi- 
denced from the circumstance, that in 1710, the authorities of 
Manilla banished all the natives of China firom the island, and 
suspended the trade with their country. The desire for gain on 
the part of the Chinese, and the necessities of the Spaniards, caused 
the evasion of this enactment, but a royal order was received from 
Spain, for the complete expulsion of the Chinese from Manilla, 
and a temporary residence was only allowed to traders, whose num- 
bers if unconverted to Christianity, (?) were not to exceed 6,000. 

On the arrival of Arandia about this period, as governor of Ma- 
nilla, he issued fresh orders for checking Chinese emigration. 
The new terms were exile or baptism, and 515 out of 3696 Chinese 
submitted to " baptism," (?) 2070 preferred leaving the colony. 
This ordor exempted the Chinese in the provinces, as the royal wish 
was not to interfere with commerce. A separate building was 
erected under the command of the citizens for the residence of the 
unconverted Chinese who were traders, and who were strictly con- 
fined to their prison-house. It is a singular feature in the history 
of commerce, that at this time an order was sent to Amoy and 
Canton for large quantities of quicksilver to be shipped to Mexico. 
The answer of the agents was, that the Chinese quicksilver was 
much adulterated, and inferior, and that its export was prohibited 
under heavy penalties. At a subsequent period, Spain exported 
considerable quanties of quicksilver to Chma, and now the export 
of this useful metal is being resumed from China to South 
America. ^ . 

When the Spaniards took possession of the Portuguese colonies, 
a private arrangement was made with regard to Macao, which did 
not require the interference of the Chinese authorities. The 
Spaniai^s also established a factory on the north side of Formosa, 
but the Dutch soon drove them from it. A brisk trade was, how- 



880 DUTCa AN» CHINXM INTX&OOVmSB. 

ever, earned on with Amoy, Canton, and Macao ; rice formed the 
chief import, was always duty free, and larfge quantities of Carolns 
dollars, at all times acceptable to the Chinese, passed from Manilla 
to China. 

In 1762 the Chinese were said to have aided the English in the 
attack on the Philippines, and great numbers of them were hanged 
by Senor Anda« There is no treaty on record between Spain and 
China; the correspondence appears to have been carried on between 
the Manilla authorities, and the Viceroy of Foo-keen. 

To the Spaniards is due the praiseworthy mtroduction of vaeci- 
oation into China in 1803. 

It is confidently stated by well-informed parties in China, that 
the present Tartar rulers imported their restrictive system of deal- 
ing with foreigners, from Manilla : to Ptatm^ke^qu is asmbed this 
policy. It is well known that he possessed great influence with 
the Chinese government in all afiBirs relating to foreigners. The 
Chinese are still viewed with great fear at Manilla, by the Spaiysh 
authorities, but the intercourse with Foo-Keen is now compara- 
tively small, and principally carried on in small Spanish schooners. 
(See Trade.) 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE DUTCH AND 

CHINESE. 

' A.n. 1694, Philip II. became master of Portugal, and his 
first act was to forbid intercourse with Holland. Thus excluded 
from Lisbon, the Dutch turned their attention to India, China and 
Japan. Their success in Japan made them anxious to open a 
trade with China; where they made several attempts to4rade at 
Canton and Macao in 1604 and 1607, but at last discovered that 
their Portugese rivals had prejudiced the Chinese authorities 
against them, and represented them as pirates. 

In 1624 the several Dutch companies were united into one, and 
became very powerful by sea. 

Their first visit was to Macao, with an admiral, and a fiieet 
consisting of 800 men. The terms proposed were liberty to trade, 
or open war ; the latter was accepted. The Portuguese were at 
that time well prepared, and totally routed the Dutch. 

The Admiral collected his scattered fleet, took possession of the 
west side of Formosa, and landed on the Piscadores, opposite the 
Chinese coast. , 

This position excited the jealousy of the Spaniards and Por- 
tuguese, as well as that of the Chinese government. Here the 
Dutch committed atrocities in the name of Englishmen, plundered 
Chinese junks, and brought the plunder to Japan for sale. 



DUTCH SHBAB8Y TO VEKIITO. 381 

At last the Chinese govetmnent consented to their establishing 
a factory on the south-west side of Formosa^ which was oaUed Eort 
Zeland, about twenty leagues from the coast of China. 

The Chinese Empire was at this time afflicted with plots and 
rebellion, so that many thousands emigrated to the Dutch settle- 
ment. 

In 1644 the Tartars possessed themselves of China, and the 
position oi the Ihitch and their flourishing colony, engaged the 
serious consideration of the usurpers, who were feufal &i another 
power disputing the goyemmeat or encroaching on their 9way. 

A.D. 1655. The Dutch government at this period were carrying 
on a most lucrative trade with Japan, and their flourishing settle- 
ment at Foianosa induced them to send an embassy with presents to 
Peking, to negotiate for a further extension of privileges, and to 
congratulate the Tartars on having obtained the government of 
China. 

Two merchants were dbosen ambassadors, and the whole train 
consisted of fourteen persons, besides two merchants, who were 
to traffic at Canton, while the embassy were to proceed to Peking. 
'P The presents consisted of several pieces of woollen doth, linen, 
spices, looking-glasses, swords, guns, &c. 

After a delay of six months in Canton, by the aid of large bribes 
the embassy was allowed to proceed to Peking as " tribute bearers.^' 
■^' The envoys arrived in Peking on the 17th July, 1656 ; the journey 
from Canton occupied four months. After an examination of the 
*' tribute,^' they were asked whether the Hollanders were bom on 
sea, and had no other home but the ocean : if they had any coun- 
'< try, and where situated : by whom they were sent, and for what 
': purpose : if they had a king, and what was his age ? These inter- 
rogatories were, after a long discussion, and by the aid of maps, 
made a little more satisfactory to the authorities. There was at 
this time at Peking^ a Russian mission, which had been waiting 
^ four months, without seeing the Emperor; there were also envoys 
from the Great Mogul of Delhi; from Western Tartars ; and from 
Tibet. 

Doubts were still entertained by the Tartar authorities, whether 
the envoys had a country, although the Hollande^rs had a country- 
man of their own at court, who had resided at Peking nearly forty 
years (Adam Schaal.) 
f After various meetings for discussion, it was agreed that the 

Hollanders should be classed with the Coreans and Siamese vas- 
^ sals, who were allowed to come at stated periods, in trading ships, 
which were admitted free of duty. 

The Dutch having brought a considerable cargo with them, it 
was not to be wondered that they were likened to Asiatics. 

At the third interview, the Tartar chancellor proposed that they 
should salute the Emperor every five yeai^i ; but the Chinese por- 



•> 

. ..■» 

w 



889 DUTCH naroEM thi nins peobtkatioks. 

tion of the Maate, proposed (out of benevolence) that it should be 
every nine years, being well aware, according to the laws of vassal- 
age, they could not trade at Canton in the meantime. 

Aooording to Nienhoff, at that stage of the proceedings, the ques- 
tion was again raised ** whether the Hollanders had a terra firmaV* 
Another idea which occurred to the senate, was, that probably, 
they were English in disguise, who thirty years previous had done 
some damage at Canton. Moreover it was stated that the free 
commerce, which they sought, was repugnant to the laws and 
customs of the empire. A petition was presented, praying that 
the same privileges might be granted, after the example of the 
people of Loo-choo, Amian, and Siam : — ^passing to and fro, and 
dwelling in China, paying tribute and taxes (tribnta et vestigalia 
presolvere) and after the manner of those three nations, of vene- 
rating the Emperor with presents every three years; with only 
one condition, viz. that the ship or ships of the envoys should not 
be required to await their return, because they would decay in 
fresh water. 

Fifteen thousand taels woidd have procured this moderate de- 
mand, but the fact, was, the envoys had been fleeced in Canton to 
a large amount, without any advantage. The chronicles record 
that On th^ jiSiid August the envoys were conducted to a kind 
of lilMmry, and. from thence into the open air, and directed to bend 
their bodies three times,And incline iheir heads towairds the ground, 
at the word of ocwusuksd. Presently the crier called out ** God sent 
the Emperor j again kneel on the ground ; then bend the head, and 
rise '^' this was done three times. At the word step aride they 
departed. 

(1656, October 1st.) At one hour after midnight, the Dutch 
envoys were conducted to the vicinity of the palace, where they 
met the other eastern envoys. Here they were all placed in a 
square court-yard, exposed to the elements, with only stone seats 
for them to sit down upon, at this cold season of the year in 
Peking. 

In an inner court was the throne of the Emperor, to which they 
were speedily introduced. Before they had time to take a proper 
view of the throne, a Tartar soldier sprang in the centre of the 
area, with a whip in his hand, which he snapped with so much 
celerity as to make a loud report. Then all rising up to the num- 
ber of about thirty, headed by the Tutangus, they approached the 
throne, and at the voice of the herald, ^^ adored,'^ by bowing the 
head nine times to the ground, to the sound of music. This 
batch drew aside, and another band of grandees, amongst which 
were the Dutch envoys, worshipped the throne with the same ado- 
ration. Milk-tea was then served round to such as had adored the 
Emperor's throne; the second ceremony was much the same, only 
tbjB whole multitude fell on their knees. This finished, the Em-, 
peror disappeared; the whole ceremony did not occupy more than 



emperor's letter to the dutch, 1656. 38S 

eight minutes. The envoys of the several nations were entertained 
by the ' Cancellarius' at his house; and before the feast com- 
menced they were all required to turn towards the north, and 
perform the same prostrations as before the throne. The regula- 
tion enforced according to custom, was that all fragments left 
should be carried away personally by each envoy. Drinking fol- 
lowed this, which was kept up until a late hour. Several similar 
entertainments were given, at one of which, a mandarin seriously, 
asked one of the envoys if it were possible that his ^* countrymen 
could live under water three days I'^ 

Nothing but the dread of being pimished for giving bribes, 
prevented the Dutch envoys disclosing the whole of the proceed-, 
ings at Canton ; indeed, when the threat was held out of some such 
intimation, they were informed that the laws punished the giver 
as well as the receiver. 

Having received orders for their departure, the Hollanders tried 
more bribes, and a promise was given that the Emperor would 
write a letter, and send presents to the Governor of Batavia. On 
the L6th October, they were conducted into a department, and 
received each article on their knees, together with a letter, written 
in the Chinese and Mantchou language. 

The Emperor's letter was as follows : — 

'^ Our territories being as far asunder as the east is from the 
west, it is with great difficulty that we can approach each other, 
and from the beginning to the present, the Hollanders never came 
to visit us. Your country is ten thousand miles distant from mine, 
but you show your noble mind in remembering me; for this reason 
my heart doth very much incline to you. You have asked leave to 
come to trade in my country, but as your country is so far distant, 
and the winds on these coasts so boisterous as to endanger your 
ships, the loss of which would very much trouble me ; therefore, if 
you do think fit to send hither, I desire it may be bat once every 
eight years, and no more than one hundred men in a company^ 
twenty of whom may come up to the place where I keep my court, 
and then you may bring your merchandise ashore into your lodge, 
without bartering it at Canton.^^ 

On the return of the embassy to Canton, nothing could exceed 
the insults and oppression heaped on it ; one of their interpreters 
was murdered. This led to further correspondence with the 
court, but with no better success, the Emperor's answer to the re- 
monstrance condescended to recognise the King of Holland as a 
tributary vassal, and his second letter was quite explicit on the. 
subject. It would be useless to give the correspondence ; it amply 
proves that the Dutch gained nothing by their abject submission. 

The Portuguese had a Chinese servant, (Coxinga) whom they had 
converted, and baptised by the name of Nicholas. This man from 
small beginnings became the most wealthy merchant in the country. 
When the Tartars invaded China^ Coxinga equipped a fleet against 



8M DUTCH BItlBOBO IK FORMOSA. 

tliMi* His object was fitvovurablr espoused b j many of the natiyes, 
and he collected a formidable fleet. He was at last inyited to 



f, treated with consideration, bribed, and retained at conrt. 

His son, Kozinga, commanded the fleet, and became a faithful 
ally of the Tartars for a short time ; but they dreading his increase 
ing power, at length prevailed on him to return to the island of 
Formosa. He, however, first tried to take Nankin, but met with 
a signal defeat. 

In 1660, the Dutch government in Batavia fearing an attack on 
their flourishing settlement in Formosa, dispatched twelve ships to 
protect it, with orders that in the event of not being required, the 
fleet was to proceed against Macao. 

The Dutch garrison with this addition consisted of 1,500 men, 
and a demand was made of Koxinga, whether he was for peace or 
war. His answer was couched in the most friendly terms, and to 
prove his sincerity and confidence, he sent several vessels to trade 
with the Dutch. The Dutch admiral was deceived by the strata- 
gem, returned to Batavia, and charged the governor with ground- 
less apprehensions. 

The governor was recalled, and no sooner had he sailed than 
Koxinga embarked 20,000 men against the Dutch settlement^ and 
was received with open arms by his countrymen (the emigrants). 

His first manoeuvre was to occupy a position which would cut off 
the communication between Zeland, and a fort on the opposite 
side of the entrance ; the governor sent about 200 men to dislodge 
him, who found it occupied by the Chinese. The Dutch were de- 
feated, leaving their captain and twenty men in the enemy's hands. 
The defence by sea met with no better fate ; although the four ves- 
sels in port sunk some of Koxinga's junks, one of the Dutch ves- 
sels was burned, and another sailed for Batavia. 

Koxinga demanded a surrender of the fort, but gave a short 
time to the Dutch to consider his proposal. The Dutch sent a de- 
pntation to his tent, which found him seated in state and surround- 
ed by his oflScers. 

The Dutch appeal was answered in the most contemptuous man- 
ner by Koxinga, who reminded the Dutch that ^ Formosa at aU 
times belonged to China ; and now that the Chinese required it, 
the foreigners must depart instantly.'' He added " either do that, 
or hoist the red flag." 

The red flag was hoisted, and the Dutch confined their defence 
to the citadel, and surrendered the other fort, cannon, &c. ; at the 
same time they set the town on fire : but the Chinese saved many 
of the buildings, and mounted twenty-eight pieces of cannon 
against the fort : but they were soon scattered by the Dutch. 

Koxinga then turned his attention to the open coimtry, and 
made prisoners of every suspected inhabitant, also the Dutch mi- 
nister, the schoolmaster, &c. 

The Dutch minister (Hambrocock) was sent to the fort to pro- 



i 



FORMOSA SURRINDEKED BY THE DUTCH. 886 

pose terms of surrender, but in case of refosal all the prisoners 
taken were to suflfer death. 

This brave man had to leave his wife and family with Koxinga, 
as hostages ; but instead of discouraging the governor he urged 
him to hold out. 

Although the minister had two daughters in the citadel, b® 
could not be persuaded to remain, but returned to the camp, there 
to meet certain death. 

As soon as he returned, Koxinga's rage knew no bounds ; he or* 
dered all the Dutch prisoners to be slain ; many of the females 
were saved for base purposes. 

Ten ships, with seven hundred soldiers, arrived from Batavia, but 
were unsuccessful in their attempt to dislodge the enemy from the 
city, and they lost two of their ships. However fearful were the 
Tartars of Koxinga, they were still more uneasy at the establish- 
ment of the Dutch in Formosa, and adopted the following strata- 
gem to aid Koxinga in his efforts for their destruction. 

In 1662, the viceroy of Fookien, (a province situated opposite the 
Dutch settlement) sent a request to the Dutch for all the force 
they could command, to co-operate with him in expelling Koxinga's 
forces from the Fookien territory, and promising every assistance as 
soon, as his own coast was cleared. 

Vanity at being invited to aid the celestial empire, prompted the 
Dutch governor to part with five of his ships for this purpose, three 
of which were lost in a storm, and the others returned to Batavia. 

This misfortune damped the ardour of the besieged, and at the 
same time a deserter from the citadel informed Koxinga of its de- 
fenceless state at one point; after a deliberation by the Dutch, it 
was decided by a majority that they could no longer hold out. The 
governor surrendered the public property, but the vanquished were 
allowed to retire with their private property, and were embarked on 
board their then only remaining ship. Such was the sequel of 
thirty years possession of Formosa, and xiine months close siege, 
together with the loss of 1,600 men. On the return of the Dutch 
to Java, they were banished to the Banda Isles. 

After the expulsion of the Dutch from Formosa, an embassy was 
sent to the Emperor of China, on a magnificent scale of grandeur. 

On this occasion Lord Peter Van Hoom, privy counsellor and 
chief treasurer of India, was chosen ambassador. The services 
tendered two years previous to the viceroy of Foo-kien by the 
Dutch governor of Formosa, was considered as a good claim for the 
privilege of trade. 

But there was an old prophecy among the Chinese, ^^ that a dis- 
tant nation of whites, clothed all over, should one day conquer 
China.'' 

A fear of the fulfilment of this prophecy, and the well-known 
hatred of the new rulers, (the Tartars) to foreigners, caused the 
opposition the Hollanders experienced. 

2 c 



886 DBQRADIMO TBBATMINT OV THE DUTCH AT PEKING. 

The reception of this embassy, and the degrading ceremony they 
were compelled to perform, were in every respect similar to the for- 
mer, and with no better success as to trading privileges. 

It was not until 1 762, that a regular Dutch factory was esta- 
blished at Canton, their trade heretofore was carried on in the 
neighbourhood of Fookien by bribing the authorities. 

The exchange of commodities between China and Japan, by the 
Dutch, proved a great source of wealth to the latter, until the im- 
happy revolution, which compelled the Prince of Orange to claim 
protection in England. 

1795. The Batavian republic determined not to be outdone by 
the English embassy to Peking, and dispatched a mission under Van 
Brom. It was well known that this embassy did not represent 
royalty, so that still more numerous obeisances than they had here- 
tofore made, were required. The reception given them by the 
Tartars was ludicrous in the extreme, it was more like a masquer- 
ade than an Embassy. The ambassador lost his hat in a scramble, 
and returned without having gained the slightest advantage. I 
saw in several temples in China, small Dutch figures cast in bronze, 
representing the Dutch in the most ridiculous gestures, kneeling 
and knocking head, performing the " Kotou,^' or ceremony of 
prostration before the vacant throne of the Emperor. 

The Dutch have not now any position in China, and but a small 
trade from Java and the Eastern Islands, in rice, 8z;c. Their inter- 
course with China clearly illustrates the disadvantage of yielding 
in the slightest degree to the arrogance of the Tartars. As yet 
they do not appear to have sought any treaty with the government 
of China, similar to those arranged by the English, French, Ame- 
ricans, and Portuguese. They have access to all the ports open to 
us, and their flag is mostly seen at Amoy, conveying grain to the 
barren province of Fookien. They are said to have acted very 
cruelly to the natives at Formosa, where many perished of starva- 
tion from their system of forced labour. They are, consequently, 
not held in respect by tHe Chinese government or people. 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. 

When the Mantchou Tartars invaded China, an adventurer 
conquered, for the Russian empire, the Tartar tribes in Siberia. 

A.D. 1650. The Russians extended their possessions eastward 
on both sides of the extensive river, Amoor; reduced to subjection 
several independent Tungusian hordes, and, having by degrees 
advanced to the frontiers of China, built a chain of fortresses 
called Albazin and Kamarskai-astrog, at the confluence of a river 
which flows into the great river, Saghalian, or Yalong. 

A similar project had been in contemplation by the Emperor 
of China, so that the interests of the two nations were placed in 



RUSSIAN AND CHINA INTERCOURSE. 387 

collision^ and^ after a great deal of intrigue^ hostilities commenced 
between them^ a.d. 1680. 

The Russian claim to the territory was probably as good as 
that of the Chinese, but the latter became alarmed at any extent 
sion of the Siberian frontier. 

The Chinese laid siege to Astrog fort, but were repulsed. They 
next attacked the strong fortress of Albazin, and compelled the 
Russians to capitulate, jSter taking many prisoners (whom they 
sent to Peking), and destroying all the Russian forts upon the 
Amoor. The Russians rebuilt the fort of Albazin within one 
year: the Chinese attacked it with 7000 soldiers, and several 
pieces of artillery ; two weeks were spent without making a breach 
in the new fortress, and the Chinese retired. To settle the point 
in dispute, ambassadors were nominated on both sides, to meet at 
Nipchu, a Russian frontier town, situated in latitude 51® 49^ 

The Emperor of China, Kang-He, sent two Romish missionaries 
as his envoys, Gerbillon and Parrennin, together with a large army 
of cavalry, infantry, and artillery. 

When the Chinese envoys arrived at Nipchu, they found a large 
assemblage of Chinese officers ; the whole available force was esti- 
mated at 10,000 foot, 3,000 camels, and 15,000 horses. The 
Chinese commander stationed his troops so as to command the 
Russian fortress of Nipchu, which is situated at the bottom of a 
great bay formed by the meeting of the rivers, Saghalian and Nip* 
chu. The Russian plenipotentiaries protested, in vain, against 
this warlike display. Negotiations were commenced, broken off, 
and again renewed for several successive days ; and never would 
have come to a satisfactory conclusion, but for the presence of the 
Chinese army. The plenipotentiaries at length finally agreed to a 
treaty, which fixed the boundaries between the two empires* It 
is stated to have been as follows s 



<t 



Treaty of Petice between Russia and China, concluded the 7th 

September, a.d. 1689. 

" Article the 1st. The River Kerbecfhi, which is next to the 
River Shoma, and falls into Saghalian, shall serve for the boundi^ 
for both empires; and that long chain of mountains which is 
below the source of the sdid River Kerbechi, and extends as far 
as the Eastern Sea, shall serve also as bounds to both empires ; 
insomuch that all the rivers and banks, great or small, which rise 
on the southern side of those mountains, and fall into the Sagha- 
lian, with all the lands and countries from the top of the said 
mountains, southward, shall belong to the empire of China ; and 
all the lands, countries, rivers, and brooks, which are on the other 
side of the other mountains, extending northward, shall remain to 
the empire of Russia; with this restriction nevertheless, that all 

2c2 



888 TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA IN 1689. 

the country lying between the said chain of monntaina and the 
River Udi shall continue undecided^ till the ambassadors of both 
powers^ on their return homCi shall have gotten proper information 
and instructions to treat of this article ; liker which the affair shall 
be decided either by ambassadors or letters. Moreover, the River 
Ergone^ which falls into the Saghalian-ula, shall serve for bounds 
to the two empires ; so that all the lands and countries lying to 
the south thereof shall appertain to the empire of China^ and 
whatever lies to the north of it shall remain to the empire of 
Russia. All the houses and dwellings^ which are at present to the 
south of the said Ergone, at the mouth of the River Meritken, 
shall be removed to the north side of the Ergone. 

" 2nd. The fortress built by the Russians in the place called 
Yaksa^ shall be entirely demolished j and all those subjects of the 
empire of Russia, now dwelling in the said fortress, shall be trans- 
ported, with all their effects, upon the lands appertaining to the 
crown of Russia. The hunters of the respective empires may not, 
upon any account whatever, pass beyond the bounds settled as 
above. That in case one or two ordinary persons happen to make 
excursions beyond the limits, either to hunt, steal, or plunder, 
they shall be immediately seized and brought before the governors 
and oflicers established on the frontiers of both empires ; and the 
said governors, after being informed of the nature of the crime, 
shall punish them according to their deserts. That if people, 
assembled to the number of ten or fifteen, shall go armed to hunt 
or pillage on the land beyond their limits, or shall kill any subject 
belonging to either crown, the Emperors of both empires shall be 
informed thereof, and those found guilty of the crime shall be 
put to death ; but no excess whatever, committed by private per- 
sons, shall kindle a war, much less shall blood be shed by violent 
means. 

'* 8rd. Everything that has passed hitherto, of what nature 
soever it may be, shall be buried in everlasting oblivion. 

" 4th. TVom the day that this perpetual peace between both 
empires shall be sworn to, neither side shall receive any fugitive or 
deserter; but if any subject of either empire shall fly into the 
territories of the other, he shall be immediately secured and sent 
back. 

" 5th. All the subjects of the crown of Russia, who are at 
present in the empire of China, and all those belonging to the 
crown of China, who are in the empire of Russia, shall remain as 
they are. 

" 6th. Regard being had to the present treaty of peace and 
mutual union between the two crowns, all persons, of what condi- 
tion soever they be, may go and come reciprocally, with full 
liberty, from the territories subject to either empire into those of 
the other, provided they have passports by which it appears that 



PETER THE GREAT SENDS A MISSION TO PEKING. 389 

they come with permission; and they shall be suffered to buy and 
sell whatever they think fit^ and carry on mutual trade. 

" 7th. All the differences that have arisen relating to the 
frontiers of both countries being thus terminated^ and a sincere 
peace and eternal union being settled between the two nations, 
there will be no longer any ground for uneasiness, provided the 
above-mentioned articles of the present treaty, which shall be re- 
duced to writing, be punctually observed. 

" 8th. The chief ambassadors of the respective crowns shall 
reciprocally give each other two copies of the aforesaid treaty^ 
sealed with their seals. 

" Lastly. This present treaty, with all its articles, shall be en- 
graven in the Tartarian, Chinese, Russian, and Latin languages, 
upon a stone, which shall be placed at the bounds settled between 
the two empires, there to remain a^ a perpetual monument of the 
good understanding that ought to subsist between them.'' 

The Russian envoys were both surprised and alarmed, not having 
more than a guard of honour at their command, and saw no alter- 
native but to accede to this treaty, by which Russia lost a large 
territory : the subsequent discoveries of Kamtschatka, and the 
various islands between Asia and America, have further proved 
the loss of the River Amoor. By this river the productions of 
these newly discovered countries could have been conveyed by 
water to Nershink, and from thence, by an easy transport by land, 
to Kiachta, instead of being transported on bad roads, over icy 
mountains^ and dangerous rivers, a distance averaging 5,000 Rus- 
sian miles. 

The River Amoor is one of the largest in Asia; it rises in the coun- 
try of the Mongols, near the River Selingo ; running eastward, it 
forms the frontiers in these parts, between Eastern Siberia and 
the Oriental Mongols ; after a course of 300 German leagues, it 
discharges itself into the Japan Sea, in lat. 44° N. The pretence 
urged by the Chinese envoys for the sole navigation of the river 
was their pearl fishery, but the real motive was to protect Corea, 
with which it is so intimately connected. 

Peter the Great, in 1692, despatched an envoy (Ides) to Peking, 
in order to establish the trade, between Russia and China, on a 
better footing. All the information given to the public by this 
envoy, is his gracious reception, by the Emperor, Kang-he, who 
appeared, from his conversation, to be well acquainted with the 
state of Europe at that time. 

Notwithstanding this friendly reception, and the treaty entered 
into, the Russians founded new settlements on the River Amoor, 
with the idea, that, as the Chinese depended on them for that in- 
dispensable portion of their dress, furs, these encroachments would 
be overlooked. In the meantime the Chinese issued instructions 
to the Mongols, to spread themselves along the river, and procure 



090 ANOTHBE BUSSIAlf MISSION TO CHINA 1719. 

such a quantity of ton as would lender them independent of the 
Russian trade. The Mongols took possession of the fortress of 
Albasin, and the inhabitants were conveyed to Peking. 

A.D. 1719. Peter the Oreat sent an embassy to China:^ to place 
the caravan trade between the two countries on a firmer footings 
and once more to regulate the boundaries of the two empires. 
Leoff v. Ismaloff was the ambassador, and Laurence De limge, 
secretary. 

This embassy was treated with great respect; but the door of 
the house in which the embassy lodged, was locked and sealed 
with the Emperor's own seal. The ambassador expostulated 
warmly on this indignity, which was then discontinued. 

With regard to the Ko-tou, after several negotiations, it was 
agreed : " Uiat the ambassadors should comply with the establish- 
ed custom of the court of China, and when the Emperor sent a 
minister to Bussia, he should have instructions to conform to the 
ceremonies of that court.^' After an exchange of presents, and a 
Mendly letter from the Emperor to the Czar, the embassy was 

eutert^ned with a grand review of troops, and ^ imperial h A in 
wliich the Emperor took an active part. The ambassador, against 
the express wish of the prime minister, prevailed on the Emperor 
Kang-he to permit De Lange, the secretary, to remain in Peking. 

A.n. 1721. These flattering appearances of success to the Bus* 
sian negotiation, ceased with the departure of the ambassador. 
De Lange was subject to every petty annoyance, in order to dis- 
gust him with lus station ; lus house was double-guarded; on ex- 
postulation, he was told that the guards were for his protection, 
and were an honour conferred on him, as the representative of the 
Emperor of Bussia. 

The trading caravan arrived this year from Bussia, but nothing 
could exceed the annoyance, inconvenience, and extortion to which 
the agents were subjected. After remaining seventeen months a 
prisoner in his own house, De Lange left with the caravan, which 
was the last admitted into Pekin. 

A few extracts from De Lange's journal will illustrate the con- 
duct and character of the Tartar rulers of China in violation of a 
solemn treaty, 

« 

'' 17th August, 1721, A.D. 

'' Having sent my interpreter to the prime minister, to know if 
they had come to any resolution, on the affair of an advance to the 
Bussian commissary at Kalchanna,'^ (the first Chinese city within 
the Great Wall, where all duties are paid,) ^^ the answer was ' that 
they had found that it was usual for the council to advance money 
to the commissary; but that trade was a matter of such little con- 
sequence to them, that they did not think it merited the council^s 
being troubled with proposals of that sort/ ^' 

De Lange^s application to the prime minister, respecting a me- 



CHINESE ILLTRBAT THE RUSSIANS. 391 

morial which he wished to deliver, received for answer " commerce 
is looked upon by U9 with contempt, and as a very trifling object ; 
the agent himself was not ignorant that we had long refused to 
admit the present caaravan, and most certainly should never have 
consented to its admittance into China, if his majesty had not 
suffered himself to be persuaded to it, at the reiterated instances of 
Monsieur Ismaloff/' The following observations were added: 
" these merchants came here to enrich themselves, not our people, 
which is easy to be seen ; because they pretend themselves to fix 
the price of their own goods, that they may sell them the dearer. 
For these reasons, go tell the agent that we shall not only refuse 
to receive the said memorial, but that in future he need not give 
himself the trouble of proposing anything to us, which may be re- 
lative to commerce, because we will not embarrass ourselves here- 
after with the merchants of Russia.'' (See chapter VI. page 136, for 
the delusive and crafty instructions issued by the government at 
Peking, to the Chinese merchants permitted to trade with the 
Russians at Kiachta.) 

At De Lange's last interview with the Chinese minister, he re- 
presented the indignities and insults to which, himself, the com- 
missary of the caravan, and all those who came to trade with China, 
had been exposed. The answer was, that, "it being his Majesty's 
custom never to take any resolution, without first well weighing all 
circumstances, he never changed his measures for any reason what- 
soever; and after what he had declared positively, in regard to the 
caravan and my person, he had no inclination to propose to me a 
change of sentiment in this i^gard. And it was, that for the 
future no transactions should be carried on between the two na- 
tions, except upon the frontiers." 

The first cost of the cargo of these caravans, was estimated at 
from 4000 to 6000 roubles, which sold for more than double that 
amount j free quarters were also given to all that accompanied it, 
no duty was charged on the return cargo. 

It was contrary to the disposition of Peter the Great, to suppose 
that he would suffer this violation of a treaty with impunity, but 
while maturing his plans, the Emperor of China died. The Rus- 
sian government delayed demanding satisfaction from his succes*' 
sor until the period of state-mourning had nearly ended ; by that 
time their own Emperor died. 

On the 14th June, 1728, a treaty of peace was concluded between 
Russia and China, wherein the boundaries, as settled in the last 
treaty, were again renewed, and the following privileges as the 
Russians considered them were granted. 
The fifth article. 

" The Russians shall from henceforth occupy at Peking, the 
court which they now inhabit. According to the desire of the 
Russian ambassador, a church shall be built with the assistance of 
the Chinese government. The priest who now resides there, and 



8S2 KUS8IAN CHURCH AND COLLEGE AT PE&IN6. 

the three others that are expected, shall live in the court abore 
mentioned. These three priests shall be attached to the same 
church, and receive the same provisions as the present priest. The 
Russians shall be permitted to worship their Ood according to the 
rites of their religion. Four young students, and two of a more 
advanced age, acquainted with the Russian and Latin languages, 
shall also be received into the house of the ambassador, wishing to 
leave them at Peking to learn the languages of ike country. 'Biey 
shall be maintained at the expense of the Emperor, and shall be at 
liberty to return to their own country as soon as they have finished 
their studies.'' 

The object of granting this request was to enable the Chinese 
merchants to learn the Russian language, (see instructions from the 
Emperor.) 

A.D. 1738. The first and only embassy that was ever known to 
leave the Chinese court, this year amved at St. Petersburgh. 
The embassy consisted of three mandarins of the second order, 
and a numerous retinue, presents were accepted and returned. 

According to the treaty of 1727-28 Russian caravans were per- 
mitted to go to Pekin through Mongolia ; but they had to contend 
against all possible obstacles from both government and people. 

The Chinese merchants, whether influenced by avarice, or through 
the instigation of government, would not ofi;er more than one half 
the value for the furs brought by the Russians. On the other 
hand, to induce the Russian traders to take the price offered, a mes- 
sage would arrive from the government to hasten their departure, 
and close their business. 

A long time was thus consumed, and the extreme heat of the 
summer frequently injured their furs. By these and worse expe- 
dients, the Russians were obliged to sell their goods at a heavy 
loss. In going and returning to Pekin, the caravans were obliged 
to cross the desert of Kobi, where they usually lost a number of 
men and cattle. The restrictions laid on the trade, and the whole 
benefit accruing to the Chinese, caused the Russians to be indif- 
ferent to their new privileges. In place of a caravan every tlirec 
years, there were only six altogether from 1727 to 1762. 

Catherine II. in this year suppressed the caravan trade to Peking, 
and ordained that commerce with China and Kiachta should be 
free. 

Meantime the position of the Mongol Kalkas had improved, 
and they were more united to China. From being the allies oi 
the Mantchou Tartars, they became their subjects ; the zealous and 
suspicious Tartars fearing that the Kalkas might one day or other 
go over to Russia. No direct violation could be brought against 
China with regard to the treaty, but a vague clause was explained 
against Russia, and in the Chinese way they silently underworked 
the treaty. 

The route for the land commerce between Russia and Cbnut 



s 



KU88IAN LAND JOUENEY FEOM CHINA. 398 

bad been changed ; fonnerly goods were transported by the rivers 
of Siberia^ with short jonmeys by land. Starting from Kiachti^ 
they fell down the Selagor ; and having crossed the lake Baikal, 
and followed the course of the Angira^ by a short passage over 
land they reached the Ket, which brought them into the Ob. By 
this river^ and some land carriage^ they arrived at the Kama^ from 
whence they passed by the Volga into the heart of the empire. 
During the last century, they began to convey goods by waggons, 
and in winter, on sledges, drawn by a single horse. This land 
traffic has proved most disastrous to the inhabitants, as they con- 
fined themselves to the rearing of horses to supply the demand, 
and thus neglected the cultivation of the land. The sufferings and 
privations of the inhabitants of the Russian settlements on the 
coast of Siberia, are too well known to require a recital. 

A.i>. 1737. IVade continued, but in rather a languid state, imtil 
the two empires came to an open rupture. 

Amoursana, a prince of Soungaria, sought refuge in Siberia. 
Application was made from Peking to the court of St. Fetersburgh, 
to deliver the prince to the court of Peking, which was refused. 

The prince soon died, and a second application was made for his 
dead body, and Ukewise for all the Soungarian chiefs ; these de- 
mands were not acceded to, and the Chinese seized upon the Rus- 
sian ecclesiastics, who resided at Peking, agreeably to the last 
treaty, and imprisoned them as Russian hostages ; when they were 
released I have not traced. 

The Empress Catherine, the better to continue the friendship 
once more begun with China, resolved to remove the trade from 
Peking to Kiachta, a frontier town on the confines of Siberia, in 
the government of Iskautask, opposite Maimatchin, a Chinese 
town, 360 leagues west of Peking, 3,660 mUes from Moscow. 

A.D. 1763. By the last treaty it was agreed that all future com- 
munication between the two empires should be carrird on by cor- 
respondence between the foreign offices of each empire. 

Complaints of aggression on both sides became so frequent, that 
the court of St. Petersburgh, with a view to put a stop to hostilities, 
requested the Chinese Emperor to send a resident minister to the 
Russian capital. 

This request of Catherine was treated with silent contempt; 
whether from the circumstance of the demand coming from a fe^ 
fnalCy or that it was beneath the dignity of the celestial empire, it is 
difficult to say. The empress proved her anxiety to arrange any 
difference that existed, and sent an envoy to Peking, who was dis- 
missed without even hearing his proposals. 

Early in the seventeenth century, a tribe oftheKalmuks, (Tour- 
gouths) removed from Soungari, to the northern shore of the 
Caspian sea, and remained subjects of the Russian empire. 

A.D. 1771. A Chinese envoy prevailed on this tribe to return to 
their old quarters. 



894 EU88IAN BMBA8ST TO PBUNO IN 1805. 

The Emperor of China, Keenlung, received his long-lost, but 
penitent subjects at his palace at Jdiol, thus approving of the step 
they had taken* The Russians claimed their subjects but were 
reminded of the Soungarian princes to whom the Russians had 
given shelter ; which appears to have satisfied the Russian govern- 
ment, which, however, was not long without an opportunity of 
retaliation. Some Chinese from the frontier went to reside in 
Siberia ; and the Chinese government demanded them, which was 
refused. 

The following letter to the Russian government is a fair speci- 
men of the arrogant style of Chineite edicts, or correspondence : — 

^' It is found upon examination, that should a thief belonging to 
either nation be discovered on the frontier, he is to be examined 
in the joint presence of the authorities, and if guilty punished with 
death. Pursuant to this law, in the 44ith year, two men who stole 
eleven horses firom you, were condemned and executed. 

" Our great empire, acting according to law, and the faith of the 
treaties did this, not for the preservation otjriendship, but from the 
love of truih, which it greatly esteems. But you, not executing the 
thief, break the laws of friendship and the faith of treaties. 

" Our great empire, perceiving that you wish to act according 
to your own will, by the obstacles you throw in the way, and your 
duplicity, will on no account permit the trade to be carried on. 

*^ Although our two empires border upon one another, yet our 
empire may call itself the elder brother. 

" Thus holding in the rank of empires the place of elder brother, 
and having, at your request, punished the two thieves with death, 
while you rofuse us the same satisfEu^ion : shall our great empire, 
includmg all the universe, submit to this ? — ^Do not you think pos- 
terity would laugh at us ? Fonder well, examine and consider, as 
you find fit and proper.^^ 

These specious arguments, are characteristic of the Tartar go- 
vernment. This letter was written after the violation of that part 
of a solemn treaty, which permitted the Caravan trade between 
Russia and China; and which the Russians were compelled to re- 
linquish. 

It is difficult to say in what way both parties became reconciled, 
but the trade was again re-opened in 1792. 

In 1805, a Russian embassy was dispatched to Peking, on a 
very magnificent scale, it does not appear to be one that is usually 
sent every ten years, to relieve the students who reside there, with 
the nominal pretence of learning the language, but in reality as 
hostages. When this embassy arrived at the frontier, they had to 
reduce the number of their retinue, as it was unusually large ; this 
was the first excuse to gain time. This was no sooner done than 
other frivolous objections were started, which detained them for a 
long period on the frontiers, during which time the mercury fre- 
quentiy froze, and the embassy was living in felt-tents. A formi- 



BI3SSIANS DENIED ACCESS TO CANTON. 395 

dable objection was at last started. Count Gk>loykin^ was asked to 
pledge himself to perform the prostration ceremony at his audience 
with the Emperor. The ambassador refused^ pleading the precedent 
of the previous English embassy^ and being contrary to all forms 
hitherto required. This was just what "Heaven^s son'' wished for 
(any excuse to violate good faith^ or an underhand breach of a 
treaty). The whole embassy was dismissed outside the Great 
Wall^ (Aunga) without any other communication than that they 
extended their journey, already too long. 

A.D. 1806. The Russians thus harassed^ endeavoured this year 
to open a trade at Canton, and dispatched that able circumnaviga- 
tor, Krusenstern, who with his usual ability sold his two cargoes of 
furs, and took in a considerable quantity of tea, before the orders 
arrived from Peking to have his vessel detained. It was strongly 
impressed on the East India Company^s supercargoes, by the 
Chinese authorities at Canton, to enforce obedience to this edict. 

The notice of their arrival seems to have alarmed the Chinese, 
at all events the Emperor expressed his surprise as follows : — 

" We are just apprised that two Russian ships have successively 
anchored in the roads of Macao, and that two barbarian merchants 
had brought with them a sum of money and a cargo of furs, with 
the intent of opening a trade at Canton. 

^^ It is found that these ships belong to a nation called Go4o*sze. 
Though barbarians are accustomed to frequent the port of Canton^ 
the name of the Russians has never been observed amongst them ; 
wherefore their sudden appearance at this time cannot be con- 
sidered otherwise than very extraordinary. How have the Rus- 
sians who trade, vi& Eaachta, and have never visited Canton, been 
able to navigate their ships, or how have they become acquainted 
with the shoals and islands in their way from Russia? This must 
be enquired into. 

" We now direct that in the event of these ships having departed, 
and any other visit for tiie future the ports of Macao and Canton, 
or their vicinity, belonging to any other nation beside those which 
have usually frequented the ports, they shall on no account what- 
ever be permitted to trade, but merely suflFered to remain in port, 
until every circumstance is reported to us, and our pleasure made 
known.'* 

It will be seen, that by the treaty of 1728, the Russian govern- 
ment have had, for more than a century, a regularly established 
religious, and scientific mission at Peking ; and to their disgrace 
it must be told that, with the exception of a geographical descrip- 
tion of China, in 1820, by Father Hyacinth, not a single advantage 
has either science or literature derived, after enjoying an oppor- 
tunity that no other Christian nation has possessed, notwithstand- 
ing the example set them by the Jesuits. 

It is needless to say, how different the residt would have, been, 
had the natives of England and France been allowed to remain 



896 EUSdlAN IIIMION TO CHINA IN 1846* 

ten jenn in the capital. It in inconsistent with the habit of men 
of science, such as these students ought to be, to suppose that they 
have not collected information. One thing is certain that none 
has come to light ; whether it be owing to apathy or to the policy 
of the Russian government, it is not difficult to conjecture. 

It is understood that there is now a Russian envoy on his road 
to or at Pekinff. 

The Timet, dated London, July 20, 1846, contains the following 
paragraph on Russia and China : — 

*' The Courrier F)rafUM8 announces that Russia is about to send a 
mission to Peking for the purpose of negotiating a treaty of com- 
merce with China. The chief of that mission is to be M. Deme- 
trius Wassiffen, an attachi of the Cabinet of Count de Nesselrode^ 
and whose brother belongs to the Russian College at Peking. 
That mission is to proceed to its destination as secretly as possible^ 
so as not to attract the notice of Europe. ' It appears,' says the 
Courrier — 

' That Russia is desirous to establish at Kiachta a considerable 
depdt of merchandise from which the Chinese may at all times 
draw the supplies they want, and she hopes to obtain from the 
celestial government, a treaty of commerce securing to her the free 
admission through that part of the frontier of all Russian mer- 
chandise, and moreover the monopoly of certain articles which the 
English and Americans were beginning to import. Such, we are 
informed, is the object of the mission of M. Wassigen, and we may 
safely assert that the convention about to be entered into will con- 
tain some of those secret articles which Russian diplomacy is ^o 
expert in introducing in all the treaties it concludes.' '' 

A Russian or a Russian Pole, dressed as a Chinese, and speaking 
the language, was at Canton and Hong-kong in 1844. As Russia 
possesses a college and mission, at Peking, the English, French; 
and other nations are equally entitled to hold a similar position. 

[A description of the Russian trade with China will be found in 
the chapter on commerce, and under the description of EliachtR on 
the Chinese frontiers.] 



INTERCOURSE BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA. 

The Chinese records state that, about a.d. 1660, foreigners from 
the west, called Fa-hm^ke (French), arrived in Canton. They are 
represented as '^ tribute-bearers,^^ but, in firing a salute, so alarmed 
the authorities, tliat an order came from court to drive them away* 

The subsequent intercourse between France and China, at least 
the early portion of it, appears to have been more of a missionary 
than mercantile character. 

A.n. 1685 — The King of France sent five Jesuits, among whom 
was Louis Le-Comte, an eminent mathematician. The Emperor, 



FRENCH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. 397 

Kang*-he^ received them very graciously; and, after providing for 
their permanent residence, and making kind enquiries after their 
king, thus spoke : '^ If I can add any new favour to those I have 
already conferred upon you ; if there be anything you would desire 
of me ; you may freely ask it." 

A.D. 1604. Henry IV. of France first projected a company to 
trade to India and China, but want of proper organization pre- 
vented the project being carried into eflFect until 1660. The 
French trade with China was insignificant ; sometimes not a ship 
arrived for five or six years. 

In 1728, an agent of the French Mississippi Company, M. 
Duvaleur, obtained permission to occupy a factory at "Canton. 
On the departure of the first ship, a serious difiference arose be- 
tween the French agent and the mandarins, with regard to some 
impositions which the former refused to pay ; but, by the inter- 
ference of French Jesuits at court, the French agent was liberated 
from prison and permitted to depart. The French trade, for the 
remainder of the last century, was carried on very languidly. 

A.D. 1745. This year the French obtained permission to land 
their goods at Whampoa, upon paying one hundred taels on each 
vessel. Seldom more than two vessels arrived in one year, of 
seven or eight hundred tons burden, notwithstanding this only 
nominal charge. Their imports were chiefly specie and broad- 
cloth, looking-glasses, azure, gold wire, and ebony ; their returns 
were tea,' raw silk, rhubarb, nankeens, and porcelain. 

A.D. 1763. The French Jesuits brought to France two native 
Chinese, with a view of instructing them in European literature 
and sciences. The Jesuits being banished from France, the king 
took these two foreigners under his especial care, to enable them 
to finish their studies. They visited all the manufacturing towns 
in France ; and on their departure for China, were frimished with 
queries, to which they were to send answers. The correspondence 
was continued for several years, and was published. The French 
nation is rich in Chinese literature, having at all times cultivated 
the language. 

A.D. 1802. The tricoloured flag was hoisted by an agent, M. 
Pirou, but was not long flying, as the trade was not continuous. 

A.D. 1829. Previous to this year, no French consul was ever 
recognised by the government of China. 

A.D. 1832. The French flag was hoisted by M. Gemarert, after 
an interval of upwards of thirty years, during which time none 
had been displayed, the flag-staiF had been removed. The con- 
sal had been four years prevailing on the Canton authorities to 
recognise his claim, without success, until a most unforeseen and 
melancholy circumstance occurred. 

The crew of the French ship " Namqateur" were massacred 
near Macao, in the year 1828. In 1829, the perpetrators were 
brought to trial, and seventeen of them were executed. The 



888 raiNCH consul instalub at canton. 

goods of tlie mnlefiicton were oonfiBcated and sold ; and some of 
the cargo was found, and likewise sold. 

The amount paid to the French consul was 4,626 dollars, and 
an official pledge was giren him that 16,946 dollars, the proceeds 
of the confiscated property, were then in the hands of the Fookien 
government, and should be paid to him for the benefit of the 
fiunilies of the murdered crew. The consul rery prudently pro- 
cured a written youcher for this sum, but was six years addressing 
the local authorities, at intervals of every two or three months, 
before he procured a settlement, still leaving a balance of nearly 
3,000 dollars, not reckoning interest, which was refused ; although 
it is probable that the relatives of those who were executed were 
mulcted out of 160,000 dollars. 

In September, 1848, the reception of the French consul at Can- 
ton was thus announced in the public journals : — 

'' We learn, by letters from Canton, that the French Consul, 
Count de Batti Menton, presented his credentials to the Viceroy 
of Canton, at the country-house of Pwankingqua. 

" This ceremony, which was preceded by several visits to the 
French consul and Captain Firmin Duplan from the Kwangchow- 
foo, and a delegate firom the imperial commissioner, may be con- 
sidered another progressive step in the events which have lately 
taken places Towards eight o'clock of the morning of the 6th 
instant, two boats belonging to the French corvette Alcmene left 
Canton for the place of meeting. They contained the French 
Consul, Captain Duplan, the Chancelier du Consulat, eight officers 
of the corvette, an interpreter, and several private gentlemen, and 
reached the house of Pwankingqua after an hour's pull. There 
the commandant and consul were shewn into the large hall, and a 
delegate of the Imperial Commissioner, the Kwangchowfoo, and 
several other mandarins, paid their respects to them. At near the 
hour fixed upon, an officer wearing a crystal button, announced 
that the Imperial Commissioner was prepared for the interview, 
when the consul and captain, with the others before mentioned, 
descended to the reception room, and there found the Chinese 
officers, and a number of other functionaries wearing white and 
blue buttons. 

'^ Some compliments having passed, the French consul pre- 
sented his credentials from the minister of foreign affairs to the 
viceroy, who handed them to the imperial commissioner, and the 
latter took note of and returned them to him. After this, many 
questions were put, concerning His Majesty the King of the 
French, about France, and her ministers generally, and more par- 
ticularly M. Guizot became the subject of conversation, which con- 
tinued for more than an hour, during which a collation was offered 
by the high Chinese officers to their guests. This intercourse 
between the high Chinese functionaries and officers of foreign 
nations, would lead to the idea that an important change is be- 



FRBNCH MISSION TO CHINA^ IN 1844. 399 

ginning to operate with regard to Europeans — a cfajange, which 
managed with care^ would appear to augur an approach to an 
entirely friendly understanding between the Celestial Empire and 
the various European governments/^ 

During our war with the Chinese^ a distinguised and estimable 
French officer^ Captain (now Admiral) Cecille^ accompanied our 
fleet in its hostile operations^ and proceeded with it up the 
Yanatzekang Biver to Nanking ; not as a belligerent^ but as a 
spectator. 

Captain Cecille told me that he landed repeatedly, while we 
were waging a destructive war, but was always well received by 
the Chinese, who knew perfectly well that he was a Frenchman, 
and not engaged in hostilities against them. 

On the cessation of the war, the French government despatched 
a special embassy, on a grand scale, to China, under the direction 
of M. Lagr€n^ (now a Peer of France) who was well qualified for 
the duty, not only by the natural qualities of his mind, but also 
from his previous diplomatic experience in Russia, Greece, and 
Spain. 

M. Lagr^ne did not attempt to proceed to Peking, although 
Mr. Cushing, the American minister, urged his co-operation in an 
attempt to open a direct communication with the Tartar sovereign. 

It is understood that the reception which M. Lagrene met with 
from the Chinese Commissioner, Keying, at Canton, was so graci- 
ous and flattering, that he resolved to comply with the urgent wish 
of the Chinese government not to attempt to visit Peking. It is 
surmised that some concessions were granted that have not been 
fully made known. Indeed, it is understood that public reasons 
have alone prevented the cession of Chusan to the French, who 
had been previously offered the island of Chuenpe, which commands 
the entrance to the Bogue Forts at Canton, which they refused. 

I transcribe from my Chinese note-book the following inci- 
dents which I heard in China relative to the French mission. 

When Monsieur Lagrene, the plenipotentiary from the King of 
the French, arrived at Macao, Keying sent a mandarin of high 
rank, and in full state, with his (Keying's) picture and a letter, 
saying that the picture represented Imn in the robes in which he 
was wont to appear before his own sovereign. Sir H. Pottinger, 
as the representative of the Queen of England, . and Mr. Cushing, 
as the representative of the United States Government, both also 
received portraits from Keying, but in a costume far inferior to 
that given to M. Lagrene. It is thus Chinese diplomacy marks 
the degree of estimation in which a person is held. 

On the ensuing day Keying, attended by a very large retinue, 
and in the most marked and ostentatious manner, visited M. 
Lagrene at Macao ; and on his introduction said, " I am delighted 
to receive, on the part of the Emperor, the representative of the 
great French King.'' To this M. Lagrene replied that he was 



480 BBCiprioif ov thb rEBNCO mifianE bt eHiiCBsx. 

aqoaHy deliriitei to neeitre the enlightened minntar of the Ebu* 
peror, and tnai he had been deputed to fmine a eommeicial treaty. 
At these wordt Keyingj with great animation said, '' no, no-^yott 
hafe no trade with ns ; you are not a trading nation^ but yon are 
a grand nation; we understand each other, and shall be good 
fiiends/' At several of the subsequent interviews between Keying 
and M. Lagr^n^, no other person was allowed to be present but 
the interpreter, M. Gallery. 

When the arrangements were conduded, M. Lagr^n€ required 
that the terms should be ratified within the Chinese territory, and 
not at Macao; Keying and M. Lagr^n^ therefore proceeded 
within the Bogue forts in a French war steamer. It was night 
on their arrivid there. The whole of the hills were lit up with 
fires ; each embrasure at every fort, had men standing with large 
flaming torches; huge lanterns were suspended around; crowds 
of junks were in like manner lit up, illumining the horizon; 
incessant salvos of artillery from the numerous forts reverberated 
from hill to hill ; and the whole scene had a most dazzling and 
surprising effect. 

Keying, who sat on the deck of the French steamer, between 
M. Lagren^ and his beautiful and accomplished wife, (a Russian 
lady, with it is said some Tartar blood in her veins) surrounded by 
a brilliant and numerous suite of French diplomatic and navfd 
officers, preserved, for a long time, a thoughtful silence, and ap- 
peared much depressed. When the signing of the documents 
was concluded, he at length said " see I the heavens and the earth 
rejoice at the compact.^' Keying then relapsed into tadtumity, 
and remained so for half an hour, as if pondering in his mind the 
part he had been pla3dng, or the step about to be taken^ as one of 
a very serious nature, and totally different from a mere commer- 
cial treaty. Then turning to M. Lagr^n^, as if in continuatisn of 
some mental thought, he said with considerable emphasis, " the 
people may be dissatisfied, but the two governments must do th^ 
duty %t any hazard or sacrifice.'^ 

An idea has been adroitly instilled into the mind of Keying and 
the Tartar Government, that France is an intellectual pow^ 
animated by the purest and noblest ideas ; and that England is a 
trading country, whose chief object is gain — ^a character that stands 
very low in the estimation of the Chinese Government and people* 
M. LagF^u^ in addition to a large naval force of some of the 
finest frigates aud steamers in the service of France, had an able^ 
numerous, and brilliant corps diplomatique in his suite, and was 
most efficiently supported by Admiral C^cille, an officer of high 
•repute, most engaging manners, and who accompanied our fleet 
to Nankin (as a neutral) in his own frigate. The French mission 
to China was also accompanied by shrewd, intelligent, represents* 
tives of the cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other trades* The Chinese 



VRENCH PLATED OFF AGAINST THiE BNOLISH. 401 

mandarinw were surprised at the beautifiil and choice i^pedmens tX 
^lass^ tapestry, house paper, bijouterie, and Parisian manufac- 
tures of every description. Artists with daguerrotype and electro- 
type machines, &c., astonished the mandarins ; and every effort was 
made, with great tact, to induce the Chinese to view France with ad- 
miration. On the other hand. Keying, the Chinese plenipotentiaiy, 
and Wang, the Governor of Canton, have endeavoured to magnify 
China in the eyes of the French; and a negotiation was com- 
menced for the introduction of French engineers into the service 
of the Emperor of China, to work the mines under a contract. It 
was also proposed to have a French ambassador stationed per- 
manently at Pekin. 

The Marquis de Ferriere, secretary of legation to the French 
Embassy in China, informed me '^that the cabinet of Pekin are 
well aware that the French and English are rival nations, and had 
often been at war; the poUcy of Keying and the cabinet was 
therefore to play off one nation against the other.'' 

The Journal des Debats of 23rd November, 1845, has nearly four 
columns on the moral and religious influence of France in China. 
The writer states that Keying said to M. Lagr^n^, " you demand 
nothing like other nations, this is a proof that you are a great 
empire ;itis not the spirit of trade which animates yoUy like England 
and America" 

The editor of the Debats, says, on this, '' it is precisely be- 
cause France has no visible and palpable interests in China, that 
there is the greater facility to cause her moral influence to be ac- 
cepted. 

" Every country follows its own wants — ^England has commercial 
relations with China, which form a fusion of interests ; France has 
moral and intellectual relations with China, which engender a 
communion of ideas and sentiments.'' 

The French legation has succeeded in getting from the Emperor 
of China a more satisfactory treaty than either England or America. 

There is a peculiarity in the preamble of the treaty which de- 
serves to be mentioned. The words translated ** Empereur de 
France," are inserted in the Chinese text in characters used only 
for the name of the Emperor of China. It appears that they are 
characters sacredly reserved for designating the son of the sun, the 
first time they recognised such a denomination to a sovereign of 
the west. In the second article, which relates to contraband 
trading, the French minister stipulated for seizure of the cargo, 
and with a notification to the consul, instead of seizure of the ship 
as mentioned in the English and American treaties. 

Article 4 stipulates, as no former treaty had done, that, in case 
there was no French consul, they should have the protection of 
the consul of any other friendly power. 

Article 6 interdicts the Chinese from increasing the number of 
prohibitions^ or making any alteration, without the consent of the 

2 D 



402 FAVOUHABLE VRINCH TKBATY WITH CBIITA. 

French Government. It bIso stipulatea in care of any cbangea, 
France shiiU be treated as the roost favoured of nations. 

In article 0, the French negotiator obtained what the Americans 
could not, — viz.: a stipulation that no company of Chinese 
merchants can be formed to replace the corporation of Hongs and 
thus destroy a fair competition in trading. 

In article 12, the Chinese are bound to make restitution of 
sums unduly exacted by Chinese custom officers; this is not men- 
tioned in any other treaty. 

Article 15 is founded on articles 6 and 7 of the American treaty. 

The following is an abstract of the treaty between France and 
China. M. Lagr^n^ deserves great credit for baring obtained a 
decree from the Emperor of China, tolerating the Christian reli- 
gion and permitting the sale of religious books, building of 
chapels, &c., this most important decree will be found elsewhere. 

The following is a translation from the Chinese copy of the 
French trading regulations ; or a commercial treaty, in tbirty-five 
articles, between France and China : — 

Art. 1st. " The Emperor of China, as well as the Emperor of the 
Great French nation, and their subjects of both countries^ will 
henceforth, for ever and ever, live in amity and peace, and no 
matter who the men are, or in what country, will all obtain full 
protection for their persons and families. 

2nd. " Henceforth the family of every Frenchman may be taken 
to the five harbours, marts, and territory of Canton, Amoy , Puh-choo, 
iSiingpo, and Shanghai, in China, to trade and live there peace- 
fully without any hindrance, always without ceasing. French 
vessels may go and come, anchor and trade at the five ports, at 
their pleasure. But it is expressly prohibited to enter other 
Chinese ports and trade there, or on every shore along the coast 
clandestinely to buy and sell. With the exception of what is stated 
distinctly in the third clause, he who offends against this regula- 
tion, will have the cargo of his vessel confiscated to government. 
But when the Chinese local officers have seized such kinds of 
goods, they ought, before confiscating the same, immediately to 
give previous notice to the French consul nearest to that port. 

8rd. ^' The property and goods, which any Frenchman may have 
in the territory of those five ports, must not contemptuously be 
involved by Chinese subjects. The Chinese officers ought not on any 
account by oppression or force, to take a French vessel for public, 
private, or other uses. 

4th. *' The Emperor of the great French nation will at. his option 
appoint consular officers at the territory of the five commercial 
ports in China, to manage the trading affairs of the merchants, and 
to examine whether the regulations are obsen'ed. The Chinese 
local officers ought to treat those consuls politely, and correspond 
with them on terms of equality. And if there is any difference, 

the said consular officers will proceed to the great ministfur.vho 



TKBATY BETWBEN FRANCB AND CllIirA. 403 

has the general Buperintendence of those five ports^ and state their 
complaint. If there is no great minister for the superintendence 
of the five ports, he will address his grievance to the great provin« 
cial officers, that they may carefully investigate the same for him, 
and manage it justly. If it ever happen that there is no consular 
ofiicer at the said port, the French captain or merchant may entrust 
the same to a national consul to transact this business for him. 
If not, he may repair to the hoppo, make there a dear statement, 
that he may adopt means to manage it properly, in order that the 
said captain and merchant may reap the advantages of the regula- 
tions. 

5th. " The Emperor of the great French nation, will at his option 
appoint men-of-war to anchor within the territory of the five ports, 
in order to keep down the merchants and sailors, so that the consul 
may have authority and power. The people of the men-of-^ar 
will in future, however, be under control, and not be allowed to 
create any disturbance. And the master of those men-of-war will 
be held responsible to issue orders for the due observance of the 
23rd clause, and the provisions for the control of the sailors in 
the management of matters concerning every vessel, and their 
business with the shore. But it is now distinctly agreed and set- 
tled, that men-of-war will pay no tonnage-dues. 

6th. " The plenipotentiaries of both nations have by their signa- 
ture and seal, settled a tariff and regulations, according to which, 
for all the vessels that enter and leave those five ports, the French 
ought to pay duties and tonnage-dues. The duty-money must 
not in future be increased, and there ought to be no other fees. 
And it has now been recorded in the regulations, that whenever 
any Frenchman has paid the tonnage-dues, and the duties on his 
goods, there will be no prohibition or restriction (on the sale). It 
matters not if the cargo is imported from their native or other 
countries, nor to what country it is taken, but this is entirely at 
one's convenience. China cannot enter into its code, any addi- 
tional prohibitory coercive regulations. If any alterations are in 
future to take place, the law requires that the French shall con- 
jointly discuss the matter, and when agreed upon, it may then be 
changed. But the tariff and regulations now proposed, or in 
future to be established, will be faQy observed at every place, and 
always by the French merchants and people, who differ nowise from 
the most favoured (greatly beloved) nation. If there are subse- 
quently any reductions in the duties, the French will at the same 
rate pay less. 

7th. '' French goods which have been imported at the five ports, 
and aecording to law pay duties, may be taken immediately by 
Chinese merchants into the interior, and shall pay transit duties 
according to the present regulations, without again extorting fees. 
The standard shall be the present tariff, and no additions need sub- 
sequently to be made. And if any clerks or runners of the mari- 

2d2 



4^)4 TRIATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA. 

time ciistom-houBe, do not observe the law^ and falsely^ake fees in 
addition to the duties^ they shall be punished according to Chinese 
laws. 

8th. '^ Having now deteimined the rate, this cannot aiFord any 
pretence for smuggling, but it is for the sake of being just, and the 
French merchant vesMcls will not, in future, smuggle at the five 
ports. If there is any merchantman which in the five ports smug- 
gle, no matter what goods, their price, or what description of arti* 
cles, or contraband cargo, for defrauding the revenue, the local 
officers will seize the whole and confiscate it. China can, moreover, 
put a stop to smuggling vessels at its pleasure, and prevent their 
entering the central land, or direct them to clear their accounts, 
and then immediately leave the harbour. But if any other nation 
makes falsely use of the French flag, (for smuggling purposes) 
France will take measures to put a stop to it, and suppress this evil 
spirit. 

9th. *' The Hong-merchants' hongs which were formerly esta- 
blished at Canton for the sake of trade, are now according to law 
abolished. Frenchmen will henceforth at their own convenience 
dispose of their articles at the five ports, whether imports or exports, 
ana trade with any Chinaman they may wish, without any inter- 
ference or obstruction. In future, none else ought to combine in 
forming a monopoly for trade. But if any transgress this lair, the 
consul will inform theChinese officers to expel him (the monopolist?). 
The officers of the central empire ought to issue pirevious prohibi- 
tions, to avoid injuring the principles of free trade. 

10th. '' If in future any Chinese are in debt to French captains 
and merchants, no matter whether on account of owing (money) ot 
of fraud, the Frenchmen will not according to the old law, demand 
the same of the security merchant, but ought to report it to the 
consul, that he may address himself to the local officers, to investi- 
gate the matter^ and they exert themselves to hold (the debtor) re« 
sponsible for the legal payment. But if the debtor can either not 
be apprehended, or is no longer in existence, or has made a total 
bankruptcy, being without the means of pajring, the French mer- 
chant will not ask the officers to make up (the debt). If a French- 
man cheats a Chinaman out of his goods or owes him (any thing), 
the consul will exert himself equally to recover the same. But the 
Chinese must not demand of the consul, nor of the French govern- 
ment, to pay him. 

11th. "Any French vessel which sails within the territory of the 
five ports, may hire a pilot to take her immediately into port. After 
having paid the port dues and duties, and wishing to set sail, the 

Silot ought quickly to take her out of port, without any impediment, 
elay, and difficulty. Whosoever wishes to be pilot of a French 
ship, must have two captains' certificates, and the consul may then 
make him a pilot to manage as other nations on the same footing. 
The consular officers at the five ports will justtf determine the 
pilotage according to the distance or the dangers and facilities. 



TAJSATY BETWEEN FAANCE ANB CHINA. ' 403 

12th. '^ As soon as the pilot has brought any French vessel into 
port, the marine custom-house will appoint one or two trustworthy 
servants to follow, and to look after the smuggling. Those waiters 
will either go on board the merchantman, or will themselves hire 
a boat, according to their own convenience. Their maintenance 
will be Airnished by the custom-house, and they ought not to ex* 
tort money &om the captains or their agents. But if they trans- 
gress this law, they will be sentenced according to the amount of 
the extortions, and the whole be again reimbursed. 

13th. ''If there is no impediment, any French vessel twenty- 
four hours after having entered the port, will present through the 
captain, supercargo or agent, the ship's register or bill of lacUng to 
the consul. The said consul will within a day after the receipt of 
the ship's papers and bill of lading, distinctly state to the hoppo, 
the ship's and people's names, the amount of the tonnage, and na- 
ture of the cargo. But if the captain is dilatory, and two days 
after the entrance of the vessel does not present to the consul the 
^p's papers and bill of lading, he shall for every day be fined fifty 
dollars, for the use of the Chinese government. Yet the fine ought 
not to exceed 200 dollars. The consul vdll then communicate 
with the superintendent of customs, and the hoppo will issue a 
permit to open the hatches. But if the captain has not received 
this permit, and of his own accord breaks bulk and discharges 
cargo, he will be fined 500 dollars, and the goods thus unloaded 
will at the same time be confiscated to government. 

14th. " Any vessel which has entered the port and not yet re- 
ceived a permit to discharge cargo, may according to the provisions 
of the sixteenth paragraph, witMn two days leave the harbour, and 
go to another place, without there paying duties and tonnage dues, 
which will be discharged, and paid up at the emporium where the 
goods are sold. 

15th. '' Any ship which leaves the port after more than two days, 
will pay up the whole of the tonnage dues. According to law, 
every vessel of above 150 tons burden, will pay at the rate of five 
mace per ton, those below 150 tons, will pay at the rate of one 
mace per ton. All previous entrance and clearance fees are abo- 
lished, and no others will afterwards be demanded. Whenever 
the superintendent of customs give a clearance, he will distinctly 
state, that the vessel has paid the port dues. If that ship goes to 
another harbour, she will take this certificate and present it for 
examination, to avoid (paying) a second time. All I^ench vessels 
which from abroad enter China, shall only once pay tonnage dues. 
Small French vessels, such as boats, no matter with saQs or without 
sails, carrying passengers, luggage, letters, and provisions, and no 
articles paying duties, will all be exempted from tonnage dues. If 
such small craft, however, transport goods, they will pay, according 
to the rate of (vessels) below 150 tons, one mace per ton. If FrencU 
merchants hire a Chinese boat, she will not pay tonnage dues. 
« 16th. . " Whenever any French vessel wishes to load or unload 



400 TKIATY BBTWBBN FBAKCB ABB CBIBA. 

CBigo^ the will fint draw m aa acooant of the goods, and present 
the same to the oonfaly who will direct a linguist to report the 
same to the custom-house, and then she will be permitted to dis- 
charge or take in cargo. A deliberate examination of the goods 
ought to take place, so that neither party may suffer loss. French 
merchants who do not wish to calculate themselyes the amount of 
duties, will employ a well experienced individual to compute them 
in their behalf. The payment will also be at their convenience. 
If after this business some difference arise, no notice ought to be 
taken of it. As for articles that pay duty per valuation, if the 
merchant cannot agree with the Ounesei they ought on both sides 
to call two or three traders to examine the goods, and determine 
their value at the highest offer. Whenever duties are to be paid, 
the articles themselves form the standard, and the tare ought to be 
subtracted. But if the Frenchman cannot agree with the custom- 
house about the weight of various goods, the disputed articles and 
tare must be weighed ; and then let them first settle the quantity 
and average number^ and again weigh the mere goods without the 
tare to ascertain the amount^ and make the result the basis of every- 
thing of this kind. If in the examination of goods some disagree- 
ment exists, the Frenchman will request the consul to come; and 
the said consul will instantly communicate this to the hoppo, to 
endeavour to make them agree. But the information must be 
given within a day, and if not, no notice will be taken of it. Before 
the dispute, however^ is settled, the hoppo must not enter the ac- 
count on books, for fear of the difSculties to arrange it subsequent- 
ly. Imports that have been injured ought to pay less duty, and 
this ought to be managed justly, according to the law of valuation. 

1 7th. " Whatever quantity of goods a French vessel may import 
and unload^ the duties will be paid as they are discharged. If the 
remainder of the cargo is to be taken to another port to be deli- 
vered and sold there^ the duties thereon will also be paid in tliat 
other port. If it ever happen, that a Frenchman has already paid 
the duties on the goods in one port, and wishes to ship them for 
another for sale, he will inform the consul thereof^ that he may ac- 
quaint the hoppo therewith, to ascertain whether they are indeed 
the very marked articles, which have not been touched. On giving 
him the port-clearance, it ought to be distinctly stated, that the 
said goods have already paid duties in a certain harbour. And 
when the said merchant enters that emporium, he will present the 
certificate to the consul, to transmit the same to the hoppo for 
examination, to be free from duty. He will then receive a permit 
to unload the goods, without paying any fees. But if there be any 
smuggling or deceit, the goods will indiscriminately be seized and 
confiscated to government. 

18th« *' The regulation is now made, that any French captain 
or merchant, should every time that he lands goods, also pay their 
amount of duties, and it should be the same on loading exports. 
As soon as any French vessel has paid the whole of the port dues 



TREATY BBTWEEX FRANCE AND CHINA. 407 

and duties, the hoppo will issue a receipt to be presented to the 
consul for examination, that the ship^s register may be restored, and 
permission for her departure be given. The custom-house will ap- 
point the number of bankers, who may receive for the Chinese go- 
vernment the duties which the French ought to pay. The receipt 
given by the bankers will be equivalentto-any issued by the Chinese 
officers. The duties may be paid in sycee or foreign money. In 
regulating the amount of premium to be made, the hoppo and 
consul will examine the relative market price of sycee and foreign 
money. 

19th. '* At all the five ports the custom-house will have scales 
and measures from the board (of revenue). These will be accurately 
compared from the true standard, and be sent to the consulate to 
be kept there, and must not in lightness, or heaviness, length or 
shortness, diflPer from those of the Canton custom-house, whilst each 
will be stamped with the characters of the custom-house. All the 
money of tonnage dues and duties, which must be paid to the 
Chinese government, shall be weighed on those scales. If there 
arises any dispute about the weight or measure of goods, it must be 
settled by this standard. 

20th. "If no express permission is given by the officers for 
transhipping goods, this ought not to be done unadvisedly, and if a 
necessity exists for transhipping the same, the merchant ought 
first to communicate this distinctly to the consul, that he may 
issue a certificate to be examined by the superintendent of customs 
to allow him to tranship goods. The said hoppo may always direct 
his underlings to superintend these proceedings. But if goods are 
transhipped without permission, unless there be unexpected danger 
brooking no delay, all the transhipped articles will be confiscated 
to government. 

21st. "Every French captain or merchant may at his pleasure 
engage any kind of lighters and small boats to carry goods and 
passengers : the fare wiH be agreed upon by the merchant to the 
satisfaction of both parties, without the influence of the local 
officers ; but if the boatmen cheat, run away, or lose anything, the 
local officers will not make it good. The number of boats will not 
be restricted, and nobody ought to have the sole management. 
There ought also to be no monopoly of coolies in loading or un- 
loading cargoes. 

22nd. ^' According to the second paragraph, every Frenchman, 
no matter what their number, may live at the territory of the five 
ports, rent dwellings and storehouses, or ground to erect the 
building himself. AH Frenchmen alike may build chapels, dispen- 
saries, poor-houses, and cemeteries. The local officers in conjunc- 
tion with the consul wiU determine upon the ground, where the 
Frenchmen ought to live or build. The amount of ground-rent, 
and house-rent, must on both sides be settled by business-like per- 
sons, according to the local rates of prices. The native ought not 
to raise the rents high, and the French consul ought carefully to 



400 TBBATY BnWCCIf FftAHGC AVB CHtlfA. 

giiAfA, ISiat hit countiymeii do not yioknflv &roe (people) to kt at 
a certain price. The paroela of ground allotted in the tenitoTy of 
the five ports for the houses of aU the Frenchmen^ ought to be 
spacious, and no restriction ought to be entered upon as to the 
numbeTi so that Frenchmen may mutually be advantaged. But if 
any Chinese profane or destroy the French chapels and graves^ the 
lo<»l officers will seise them with strictness^ and severely punish 
them. 

28rd. '* Eveiy Frenchman who sojourns in the territc»ry of any 
ci the five ports^ or comes and goes, may at the nearest place walk 
about, and take exercise. To his daily movements and doings, he 
does not differ fifmn any native, but must not exceed the bounda- 
ries fixed upon by the consul and local officers, for the.. sake of 
scheming (after gain). At the anchorage of merchantmen, the 
sailors ought likewise in their walks not to exceed the boundaries. 
Whenever they go on shore, there ought to be regulations for 
coercing them. These rules will be drawn up by the consul, and 
submitted to the consideration of the local officers, to prevent the 
said sailors firom creating disturbance or strife amongst the natives. 
No matter who the Frenchman is, whoever goes beyond the space 
aDotted, or to a distance into the interior, may be seised by the 
Chinese officers. But he ought to be delivered up to the keeping 
cf the French consul at the nearest port. The Chinese officers 
and people must not beat, wound, injure, or cruelly treat the 
French prisoner, to harm the friendship and peace between the 
two countries. 

34th. '' IVenchmen are allowed at the territory of those five 
ports, at their option, to rent, buy, and hire linguists, clerks, arti- 
sans, sailors, and workmen. They may also engage gentlemen to 
teach them the Chinese language, instruct them to write the Chi- 
nese characters, and acquire the ^alects of every part. They may 
also employ pe(q>]e to assist them in their literair labours, to draw 
iq> essays, study literature and arts. The hire and pay they will 
either fix themselves, or the consul will settle it for them. French- 
men may also teach those of the Chinese who wish to learn their 
own, or any other language; also sell French books, and buy all 
kinds of Chinese works. 

S5th. ''Every Frenchman who harbours resentment or ill wiU 
towards a Chinese, ought first to inform the consul thereof, who 
will again distinctly investigate the matter and endeavour to settle 
it. If a Chinese has a grudge against a Frenchman, the consul 
must impartially examine and ftdly arrange it for him. But if 
there are any disputes, which the consul is imable to assuage, he 
will request the Chinese officer to co-operate in managing the 
matter, and having investigated the ifacts, justly bring the case to 
a conclusion. 

26th. '' If any Chinese of the five ports in ftiture harm the 
French, insult or annoy them, the local officers will immediately 
put them down, and adopt measures for their protection. But u 



TESATT BETWBSN FRANCE AND OHIlfA. 409 

there are TiUfOBS or disreputable people who wish to rob^ desftroy, 
or bum the French houses^ fact<mes^ hospitals, and buUdinga, they 
have erected, the Chinese officers will either make inquiries^ or the 
consuls will give information thereof, and then send their police to 
drive away the rabble, seize the offenders, and punish them severely 
accordiDg to law, making them in future responsible for the reco- 
very of the stolen articles, or a compensation. 

27th. ^' If there is any strife between Frenchmen and Chinese, 
or any fight occurs in wluch one, two, or more men are wounded 
and killed with fire-arms or other weapons ; the Chinese will in 
such case be apprehended by their own officers with all strictness, 
and punished according to the laws of the central empire; and the 
consul will use means to apprehend the Frenchmen, speedily inves- 
tigate the matter, and punish them according to French lawSb 
France will in future establish laws for the mode of punishment. 
All other matters which have not been distinctly stated in this 
paragraph will be managed according to this, and great or lesser 
crimes committed by Frenchmen at the five ports, will be judged 
according to French law. 

28th. *^ All differences of Frenchmen in the territoiy of the 
five ports will also be settled by the French consul. If a French** 
man has a quarrel with a foreigner, the Chinese officers will not 
interfere. Vessels within the territory of the five ports, must not 
be meddled with by the Chinese officers, but the management wiU 
either fall to the consul or the captain himself. 

29th. '' As soon as the civil and military authcnities hear in 
the neighbourhood, that a French merchantman has been robbed 
by Chinese pirates on the seas of the central land, they will with ail 
severity seize them and punish them according to law. The ^uur 
der, no matter at whatsoever place it is seized, and under any cir*- 
cumstances, must be given back to the consul, to be restored to 
the agent. But if the pursuers cannot apprehend the robbers, or 
not obtain all the stolen goods, they will proceed according to the 
Chinese laws in this matter, but no compensation will be made. 

SQth. '^ All the French men-of-war which come or go^ or sail 
about for the protection of merchantmen, ought to be treated with 
friendship at every port they touch. Men-of-war are allowed to 
buy their daily provisions, and on having suffered damage, to refit, 
without let or hindrance. When French merchant vessels have 
been injured, or if there is any other cause or necessity for seeking 
shelter in a port, no matter what the emporium may be, she ought 
to be treated with friendship. If any French ship suffers near the 
territory of the Chinese shore, the local officers on hearing of it will 
render assistance, and supply her daily wants and adopt means to 
drag out goods to prevent their being damaged. I^ey will give 
immediate notice to the nearest consul, who, in conjunction with 
the local officers, will adopt measures for sending the merehants and 
sailors back to their homes, and also save for them any articles of 
the wreck. 



410 T&XATT BBTWIBN FEANCB AND CHIITA. 

Slst. ** When aailon have ran away firom French men-of-war 
or merchant vessels, the consul or captain will give notice to the 
local authorities, that they may exert themselves in seizing and 
delivering them over to the consul or captain. But if any Chinese 
criminals take refuse in a French dwelling, or hide themselves on 
board a merchant ship, the local officers will then send information 
to the consul, that after haring clearly investigated the crime, he 
may use means to seize and send him to the Chinese officers. No 
protection (to outlaws) ought to be given on either side. 

32nd. '* If in future, China is at war with any other country, 
the central empire will not prevent the French from carrying on 
their commerce, or firom trading with the hostile nation, unless a 
blodcade be dedared to disable (vessels) from entering. All legal 
articles may be exported firom China to the country with which it 
is at war, without any hindrance, or any difference in the ordinary 
trade. 

88rd« '^ Perfect equality and etiquette shall in future exist in 
the intercourse between officers and public men of both countries, 
according to their designation and rank. Great French officers, 
no matter whether they correspond with the great officers in or out 
of the capital, will use the word ^ communication.' French officers 
of the second rank will in their official letters with the great pro- 
vincial Chinese officers, use the word ' statement/ The great Chi- 
nese officers will write to them under the term of ' making known f 
and the officers of both nations possessing equal rank will corres- 
pond on equal terms. Merchants and plebeians of either (country) 
on stating any complaint will all use the word 'petition.' When a 
Frenchman has to refer any case to the Chinese local officers, his 
petition and letter must be transmitted through the consul, who 
will examine, whether the expressions are reasonable and proper, 
and if not, change them or give back (the paper). If any Chinese 
have a petition to transmit to the consul, they will do this through 
the local officers to be managed in the same manner. 

84tb. '' If in future the emperor of the great French nation has 
to send a letter to the court (of Peking,) the resident consul of the 
emporium will take this dispatch and present it to the great minis- 
ter who manages the foreign affairs of the five ports. And if there 
is not a great minister over the five ports, it wUl be transmitted to 
the governor to forward the same. . If any national letter is sent 
in return, it will be done in the same manner. 

85th. " If there are any clauses in the regulations, which on a 
Aiture day the Emperor of the great French nation wants to have 
changed, twelve years after the exchange (ratification) of these re- 
gulations must first elapse before this can be done, and then new 
negotiations may be entered into with China. But if there are 
any other prorisions settled with other nations, and not contained 
in those clauses arranged by the French, the French consular offi- 
cera and people cannot be comtrained to obeen)e them. Yet if the 
central empire confers especial favours, extensive benefits, consider- 



UNITED STATS8 AND CHINA INTEBCOVBSB. 411 



able exemptions and protections, which other countries obtain, 
France will also participate in them/^ 

A comparison between this treaty and the treaties with Enghmd, 
will be given in a subsequent chapter. 

INTERCOURSE AND TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED 

STATES AND CHINA. 

The American intercourse with China commenced in the year 
JL.D. 1786. A vessel of 350 tons made a voyage to China^ with 
the assistance of a chart of the world. The supercargo of this 
voyage^ in his narrative^ acknowledges himself indebted fin: his 
introduction to the Chinese and Portuguese^ to the French consul 
then at Canton^ Monsieur Yieillardj and others of his nation. 

The neutrality of the Americans during the war^ gave them free 
access to the various ports of Europe^ by which their Eastern com- 
merce in particular rapidly increased. 

During the reign of Napoleon^ the Dutch flag was excluded from 
the port of Canton, and the Americans became the carriers of tea 
to Holland. The progress of their commerce will be shown in 
another section. 

In A.D. 182], their trade was stopped at Canton in consequence 
of a sailor, on board an American ship, having as was alleged drop- 
ped a pot overboard, by which a Chinese woman was accidentally 
killed. 

Captain Copeland refused to surrender his seaman to the Chinese 
authorities, unless Howqua, the celebrated Hong merchant, would 
pledge his word that the sailor would be returned as soon as he 
had gone through the indispensable ceremony of " looking at the 
Chinese judge," i.e., the CMnese judge looking at him. 

The Pon-ue (judge), and his interpreters, came on board the 
Emily, and demanded that the seaman should be placed in irons ; 
this request was firmly refused,rand at last dispensed with. 

Facqua, the security merchant of the Emily, and Cowqua, the 
linguist, being called, fell on their hands and knees, to hear the 
demands of the Pon-ue, of which the Americans could get no in- 
terpretation. Captain Copeland was next called, and required to 
produce the prisoner, Terranova, who approached the table at which 
the Pon-ue sat ; the fatal jar with which he was accused of having 
struck the woman, was placed before him on the deck, together 
with the hat she wore at the time. Being questioned, he replied 
with perfect composure and firmness, that it was the same jar 
which he had handed the woman, and gave her a mace to pay lor 
the fruit she was to place in it ; showing by signs the manner in 
which he had handed it into the boat. 

The Pon-ue exhibited great irritation at any attempt at explana- 
tion; and Howqua and the linguist, although repeatedly urged, 
did not translate the one-half of his defence ; and whenever they 



1 



MS CHINMt TAIAt OF JLH SV«OFJIAir m 1821. 



mttemptfid^ tbsy were stopped by the judge. All efforts fiuled to 
have other witneases for the defence heard, and the Chinese wit- 
acisos being called, the Americans withdrew, (Ais is the custom in 
Chinese trials), but not without an assurance that they would be 
heard. A woman and two children were the only witnesses pvo*- 
duoed, and when required to point out the supposed guilty party, 
the woman seemed unable, until the linguist placed his hand on 
T^nraaova, although there was no other seaman present. 

This circumstance was strongly objected to on behalf of the 
pnsoner, and the linguist was requested to make known the ob- 
jection to the judge, but he refused to do so. 

A translation of this woman's evidence was then commenced; 
but as she spoke good English, it was urged that she ought to be 
allowed to repeat her own eyidenoe for the satisfaction of the 
Americans4 This was refused, and on her commencing Englxsh^ 
she was instantly stopped. It was now* urged that this same woman, 
a few days previous, had stated to Captain Copdand, in the pre- 
sence of four other captains, a totally different statement, viz. : that 
she was inside of her boat when it occurred, but saw the husband 
of the deoeased pick up the hat and jar, and lordbly make a hole 
in the former with the jar. 

AU diis Howqua interpreted to the judge, but without mak- 
ing antF impression on him. One of the children gave some evi- 
dence, but there was no translation of it made. Evidence was 
tendered on behalf of the accused, to prove that the children were 
on shore at the time of the &tal occurrence. At last it was ad<* 
mitted that the judge was aware that the woman had toid a diffe* 
vent story, but he declared that now she had told the truth. The 
iastruments of torture were brought forward, but not made use ofl 
Captain Copeland became most earnest in protesting against this 
mockery of justice, but was deprived of the aid of the Bev. Mr. 
Morrison, by the Chinese, on the ground of his being a British 
subject. 

At length the judge, seeing the determiuation of the Americans, 
again took his seat. He sat a few minutes, but only heard a 
few words of the rebutting testimony, when he silenced the linguist, 
and rising from the chair, said it was Heaven's business ; if he had 

Cdged wrong, GtKi would punish him for it hereafter ; he knew in 
s own heart the man was guilty ; he must be delivered up. With 
this he quitted the Smily, leaving upwards of 1000 Chinese on board, 
and the ship surrounded with war boats. 

. Terranova, in a few days afterwards, willingly surrended himself, 
whidi was a good proof of his innoc^ioe. He was conveyed to 
Canton, and it is supposed a similar mockery of justice gone through 
before the viceroy, and on the third day he was strangled outnde 
qfihe eUywaU. His body was sent to the Americans, and the trade 
opened on the same day. 
. . The viceroy thereon issued an edict, in whiefe, after narrating 



tlie execution, he says, "-preiriously to tliis> in consequ^M^e of ^e 
said natiou^s chief staring about, and not deliTering up the actuid 
murderer, I communicated with the hoppo, and requested him to 
command the man to be given up ; and I examined the records, 
and in imitation of an English case, I suspended the American 
trade. Since they have delivered up the murderer, who has been 
clearly tried and punished, the said chief has behaved respectfollf 
and submissively; and it is proper to open tbeir trade in order to 
manifest our compassion/^ 

'^The Celestial Empire's kindness and favour to the weak, is rich 
in an infinite degree ; but the nation's dignity sternly commandi) 
respect, and cannot, because people are foreigners, extend cle- 
mency to them. Let the Hong merchants explain this officsal 
mandate, and persuade the said foreigners to be warned by it, and 
thereby to be filled with reverence and awe, that each may ensure 
the safety of his own person and family/' In his report to the 
Emperor, the viceroy says : " In the present case, the name of the 
murderer was pointed out by the said foreigners, and it was 
acknowledged by him (Terranova), that the jar thrown w%m his 
property. If he was not the murderer, why did he become sidk 
from melancholy ? — and, moreover, why did his captain put hint 
in irons? In these proceedings there is every species of sdf-eou;' 
tradietion and incoheremy, which shows the cntfty and deceil^ 
dasposition of the foreigners. It is, moreover, preyed that the said 
murderer, in open court, struck his breast with his hand, to make 
a sign of confession that the jar was his. And moire still, it is 
authenticated^ that he took up the jar in his two hands, and showed 
the manner in which he threw it down from above. In this state- 
ment of the case, there is no evasion or gloss. Now, it is written 
in the law, when persons outside the pale of Chinese civilisation 
shall commit crimes, they too shall be punished according to law, 
I, therefore, ordered them to take the said foreigner, and, accord- 
ing to law, strangle him, to display luminously the laws of the 
empire. 

. " In every siznilar case, foreigners ought to give up murderenr, 
and thus they will act becoming the tenderness and gracious kind^ 
ness with winch the Celestial Empire treats them." 

T^ranova was an Italian ; it is said that a few hundred ddlars 
would have saved his life. 

In 1844, the American consul at Canton erected a flagstaff, sur- 
mounted by an arrow for a vane. This circumstance caused great 
excitement among the disord^ly inhabitants of' Canton. It was 
soon removed, and a placard was issued from the authorities, 
which shows that they pander to the popular cry in everytiiing 
that concerns fixreigners. 

On this occasiOD, the Americans, in sdf-4efence, shot a Chiuft* 
man, but the Canton government did not dare to demand an 
American in return, and enforce the demand by* stoj^ing tthe 



414 AKBEIOINI SHOOf A CUWAUktl. 

t«ftde« On the eaoktwry, tbe fdlowing edict was iBsaeA by iShe 
imperial oommiBsioner, Keying, whicli well illnstntes the altered 
state of feeling which the Tartar gotremment at Peking are now 
compelled to manifest. 

^' Keying, Imperial Comminioner and Viomy of the two Kwmig 
Prorinoes, &e«, and Ching, Ideutenant-govemor of Canton, herel^ 
iwue their dear commands. 

*' Whereas a native of Tsing-yuen district, named Sea-amwan, 
was shot dead by an American, as is on record ; and, 

*' Whereas, we transmitted our commands to the American 
consul, Ftth-sae, to institute strict inyestigation, and deliyer up 
the murderer to us, to be dealt with according to the hiws ; the 
said consul, it appears, has now represented that he has clearly 
examined into the case of the murder of Seu-amwan, by a man 
named Tan-yeli, and that he has deUvered him over to an Ameri- 
can envoy, to be adjudged by him according to the laws of his 
native country. 

'^ And, whereas, in the supplementary treaty concluded with 
England last year, it was provided that, when altercations arise 
between natives of China and subjects of that country, the former 
are to be judged by our officers according to our laws, and the 
latter by the English consul, according to the laws of that country. 

'' And, whereas, by the treaty of commerce entered into in the 
present year with various countries, amongst whom is America, 
the same is expressly provided for, when quarrels and altercations 
arise between Chinese and Americans, we have memorialized the 
throne, and have now received the imperial command, in reply, 
respecting the case of Seu-amwan, to the effect that, as the Ameri- 
can consul has clearly ascertained that Tan-yeli shot Seu-amwan, 
it is agreeable to the treaty that he be delivered over to be dealt 
with according to the laws of his native country. Wherefore, be- 
sides giving our commands for the information and respectful 
obedience (of the consul), we now issue this clear proclamation 
that all you soldiers and people may fully understand. Do not 
seek after private revenge, and thereby give cause of dispute. 
Let none oppose this special proclamatum. 

'^ Issued, 

Tawkwang, 24ith year, 8th month, 11th day, 
September 2nd, 1844.^' 






In 1844, the United States government sent an expensive em- 
bassy to China, under the direction of an able plenipotentiary, 
Mr. Caleb Cusbing, for the negotiation of a treaty between the 
governments of Washington and Peking, sunilar to the treaty 
entered into with England ; the Chinese government having pro- 
mised, on the representation of the American Commodore, Kearney, 
pr^vioM to the treaty qf Nanking ^ thai whatever concessions were 
made^ to the English should also be granted to the Umted States. 
The throwing open the ports of China to Europe and America was 



AMERICAN TBEATT WITH CHINA. 41 S 

ndt^ therefore, the result of our policy, but had its ori^n in the 
anxious forethought of the Americans, lest we might stipulate for 
some exclusive privileges. 

When our plenipotentiary heard from the Chinese commis- 
sioners, that it was intended to grant to other nations the terms 
given to England, he, of course, concurred in the wise policy pro- 
pounded, as, in fact, the treaty of Nanking (which was framed inEng-- 
land exactly as it was subsequently and immediately accepted by the 
Chinese commissioners, without negotiation), contained no exclu- 
sive clause referring in any maimer to the United States, or other 
countries. This explanation is necessary, as great merit was 
claimed, and great praise given, for that which had no existence 
in reality. 

The follGWing is a list of Ihirty-four articles, deliberated 
and determined upon, for the trade of the merchants of 
the United States of America, at the five ports in China, 
Translated from the Chinese. 

1st. '^ Hereafter the Great Pure Dynasty with the United States, 
and the people of both nations at any place whatever^ shall mutu- 
ally be on terms of amity, good faith and harmony, preserving 
together peace and quietness for myriads of years, without anything 
to disturb it. 

2. " The people of the United States coming to China to trade, 
shall pay duties on imported and exported goods according to 
the tariff already settled, without being charged more than 6ther 
nations ; all former expenses and fees being completely done away 
with. Should the underlings of the custom-houses make extortions, 
the Chinese nation will punish them according to law. Should 
China hereafter wish to make any change in the tariff of duties, it 
must be deliberated upon, and consented to, by the consuls and 
other officers of the United States. Should any extra advantage 
be extended to other nations, the people of the United States must 
equally and universally benefit by it; in order to display justice 
and equity. 

3rd. " Henceforth the people of the United States shall without 
exception be permitted to take and carry their families to all the 
five ports of Canton, Fuh-choo, Amoy, Ningpo, and Shdngh^, to 
dwell and trade there. The vessels of the five ports, carrying 
cargoes backwards and forwards may follow their own convenience; 
but into any port other than the five ports not a single vessel shall 
enter nor presume to wander about. They also may not privately 
trade with the lawless inhabitants along the coast. Should there 
be any who oppose and offend against this prohibition, the vessel 
and goods must, according to the regulations already agreed upon, 
all revei-t to China and be confiscated to government. 

4th. '^ The people of the United States being permitted to resort 
to the five ports for purposes of trade, it will be right and necessary 
to establish consuls and other officers at each place, to superintend 



416 AlCSEICAN TRBATT WITH CHINA. 

the aAln of the people of their own nation. The local officers of 
China shall receive and meet them with increased liberality. In 
all mutual interoonrse, whether by the interchange of public doctu- 
ments or by interviews for personal consultation, both parties shall 
maintain their proper rank. Should the local officers insult or 
slight the consuls and other officers, the consuls and others will be 
permitted to take the grievance, and complain of it for redress to 
the high officers of China, who will in equity and justice examine 
into and arrange it. But the consuls also may not follow their 
own will and inclination, thus giving rise to many altercations with 
the Chinese officers and people. 

6th. *'^The people of the United States trading at the five ports, 
with the exception of merchandise forbidden by the Chinese laws 
to be imported or exported, will be permitted to take every other 
article of merchandise, and either bnng it from their own or other 
countries, and import it for sale; and they will also be permitted 
to carry out Chinese merchandise and export it to their own or 
other countries for sale, in both cases paying duties according to 
the present established regulations, beyond which, no other ex- 
penses or fees will be permitted. 

6th. '' All vessels belonging to the United States proceeding to 
the five ports to trade, shall have their ships' papers examined by 
the consuls and other officers, who will report to the superintendent 
of customs ; when, according to the number of tons which a vessel 
can carry, she will pay the tonnage dues. Thus, those which can 
carry more than 160 tons shall for each ton pay tonnage dues five 
mace ; while those below 160 tons shall for each ton pay tonnage 
dues one mace. The former fees, for measurement and other 
items, shall be entirely done away with. Should any vessel enter 
a port, having already paid her tonnage dues at the custom-house 
of that port, and because of not completing the sale of her goods, 
take them to some other port for sale, the consuls and other offi* 
cers shall report it clearly to the supeHntendent of customs, who 
will, on that vessel leaving the port, take the fact of her having 
paid her tonnage dues, and clearly state it in the grandchop ; and 
he will also forward a letter to the superintendent of customs of 
the other port to examine into it, and on the said vessel entering 
the other port, she shfdl only pay duties on her goods, but no 
tonnage dues, to avoid a second charge. 

7th. " When people of the United States at the five ports, use 
their own boats and other craft, to carry passengers or baggage or 
letters and eatables and other things, for which duties are not pay- 
able in the tariff, it will not be necessary for such craft to pay 
tonnage dues. But if, besides these things, they should carry 
merchandise, then they should, according to the rule for vessek 
under 150 tons, pay one mace per ton. Should Chinese boats be 
engaged, they will not come under the rule of paying tonnage dues 
according to the number of tons. 



AMB&IGAN TREATY. WITCr CHIN4. 417 

8th. " AU trading vessels belonging to the people of the United 
States entering the port^ will be permitted to hire pilots in going 
through narrow passages and dangerous places. When a vessel is 
reported as brought in^ as soon as she shall have completely paid up 
her tonnage dues and duties^ a pilot shall be ordered as before to 
take her out immediately. In hiring servants or compradores^ or 
in requesting the services of linguists and writers^ or in engaging 
Chinese boats to remove goods or convey passengers^ or in hiring 
additional workmen^ servants^ or sailors^ and in all circumstances 
where necessity requires, if not contrary to the laws, every one 
shall follow his own convenience. The price of work, the mer- 
chants and people may themselves determine upon, or it may be 
arranged by the consuls; the Chinese local o£Glcers are not to 
interfere in the matter. 

9th. " When a trading vessel of the United States comes to a 
port, as soon as a pilot has brought her in, there shall immediately 
be deputed from the custom-house trustworthy runners to attend 
the vessel and guard her. These runners may either lodge on 
board the merchant vessel, or hire their own boat and attend the 
ship according as they find it most convenient. For food and ne-« 
cessari^s, the custom-house shall daily give money ; they may not 
extort from, the merchant ship any fees, however small. Should 
they disobey, they will be considered as guilty of receiving bribes^. 

10th. " On a merchant vessel of the United States entering 
the port, either the captain, supercargo, or the inerchant agent 
3hall, within a period of two days, take tl^e ship^s paper, bills qf 
lading, &c., and deliver them to the consuls and other officers of 
their country to keep and hold. T}ie consul shall immediately take 
the name of the vessel with the names of the people, the number 
of tons she carries and the kind of goods, and making a minute 
list of them, commuxiicate with the superintendent of customs, who 
will then allow them to receive a permit to break bulk and unload 
the goods; should it happen that, before the receipt of a permit, 
any should presume to unload goods, they shall then be fined 50Q 
dollars, and the goods which they presumed to land and remove, 
shall altogether revert tp Chi^a^ and be confiscated to government. 
Should a merchant vessel enter the port, and only unload a portion 
pf her cargo, she shall pay duties according to that portion of the 
gpods discharged. The goods yet undischarged may without excep- 
tion be carried to any other port for sale. Ji a vei^sel should enter 
the port, and not yet having broken biilk, should wish to go else- 
where, she will within the limit of twp d^iys go out of the port, but 
she must not remain longer ; in which cas^ ^so no duties nor ton- 
jiage dues will be levied or received. But on her arrival at any 
other port and making sales, she will then be required to pay duties 
according to the tariff. Should s^ merchant vessel, after entering 
the p<»rt, have exceeded the term of two days, it will then be neces- 
sary to pay the tonnage dues, and the superintendent of custom^ 

2 E 



418 AMERICAN TREATY WITH CBtNA. 

may as before fill up and issue a grandchop^ and mak^ it kil<)Wii 
to the other ports in order to avoid paying them a second tini^.'> ' ' 

11th. *' Merchant vessels of the United States dealing in g66As 
either for import or export^ shall report the day fixed for tiiSblUi- 
ing and shipping goods to the consuls and other ofiicers^ W%rk4i 
report shall^ oy the consuls and other officers^ be transmittcrd to 
the superintendent of customs^ who will on the arrival of the dttr^ 
depute an ofBcial attendant that he may in conjunction wit^ the 
captain, supercargo, or merchant agent and others, eqtdtablylMd 
fairly examine the merchandise, in order that the duties m^y 'be 
levied according to the tariff. If among them there be toy g(K>ds, 
the price of which must be estimated to determiiie th«f^ duties, or 
respecting which there maybe differences of opinion as to the txrice, 
or as to the deduction of the amount of tare, so as to give nse to 
disputes which cannot be readily settled ; the said 'merchant shall, 
on that same day, petition and report to the consul, so that he may 
acquaint the superintendent of customs, and with him consult uptm 
and determine it. If the petition and report be delayed^ then no 
permission will be given further to arrange it. 

12th. " At the places of the consuls of the United' States* at 
each port, there shall be famished by the Chinese superintend^t 
of customs, a cAangr measure, a cheh measure, a steel'-yanlatid 
weights, of each a set, ready for measuring lengths and^ brewydfilfs, 
and ascertaining weight and lightness. They shfill be* afkef'tHe 
pattern of those distributed by the hoppo of Cant6n; tod w«|U^%e 
marked with engraven characters — one rule applying tb thii'fite 
ports, in order to avoid irregularity and villany. ' »• 

13th. '' After a merchant vessel of the United States haiii^- 
tered a port, on receiving a permit to unload goods she musi im- 
mediately pay up the tonnage dues ; on goods imported, the dtfttes 
must be paid at the time of unloading; and on goodfl ^^Tt<)d*ilie 
duties must be paid on being shipped; and when the duties^ 'ittid 
tonnage dues shall have been completely paid up, tlie superintiMM- 
ent of customs shall issue a grandchop, having examined wfaidhlSie 
consul shall return the ship's paper, and permit the merchanf^v^- 
sel to go out of the port and return to her own comltry.' ®ic 
duties paid, shall be received for the Ghinese officers %y naldOArs 
appointed by them, either in sycee silver, or in for^gn d^lldv, 
made up to the standard, all in accordance with the ah^dy MdlAlt- 
ing regulations. Imported merchandise that may be ta&fm ' by 
Chinese merchants into the interior for sale, shall on passing (b^HSrv 
custom-house pay duties according to the old tariff: there hM^ be 
no further addition or increase. » ''^ 

14th. " Merchant ships of the United States anchoring *li^littn 
a port, will not be permitted to tranship goods from owe' ftA^ffhe 
other. Should it be necessary to tranship into another vessiil, %he 
merchant must present a request to the consul, who viSl reWit it 
to the superintendent of customs, that he may send an'oflHAk^to 



^MEBlCi^H 9REATY WITH CHINA. 419 

^(iiiikQ elemr and trae examination, when permission will be given to 
tranship; Should any, without petitioning and waiting for exami- 
vt)ation, Goiifusedly go about transhipping, the goods thus tranship- 
ped, shall altogether revert to Chinsi, and be confiscated to govern- 
J9Dent. 
t ISth. I . ^^ Ajccording to the former regulations, the commercial 
interopuia^ of every nation reverted to foreign hongs^ established 
by the Csmton officers to arrange and control. Now it is deter- 
xpined upon to take the list of the foreign hongs, break it up, and 
4o away with it. Thus, people of the United States importing or 
jeKporting goods are p^mitted to trade with any Chinese merchants 
they please; there shall be no limit or restrictions, so as to put a 
«tep to ajU the villany of grasping and monopolizing. 
. 16th. " Should Chinese merchants happen to owe money to the 
people of the United States, or should they defraud them of their 
property, the people of the United States may themselves go and 
sue for it ; the officers cannot be security for its recovery. If an 
accusation be lodged with the officers, the Chinese local officers, 
on receiving a eommunication from the eonsul, must immediately 
make equitable investigation, and push the recovery of the debt ; 
if the debtor be already dead, and his property gone, or if the 
fraudulent villain have really escaped into concealment, and there 
.be no traces left of him^ the people of the United States shall not 
adhere to .the old regulations, and require the hong merchants to 
jinake it good. If any people of the United States contract debts 
with, and de&aud Chinese merchants, then it shall be arranged 
according to this rule, and the consul also will not be security for 
itp recovery. 

17th. " People of the United States, trading at the five ports, 
whether dwelling there for a long period, or temporarily residing 
these, are in both cases permitted to hire and rent the people's 
houses, or to hire ground in order to build themselves houses, and 
foir sites on which to establish hospitals, halls for worship, and 
ceineteries. It will be necessary for the Chinese local officers, in 
4$oi9Lpa]iy with the consuls and other officers, to consider and in- 
quire into the feelings of the people^ in selecting and fixing upon a 
spot of ground. The people of the United States, with those of the 
ii|i|ier land, are equitably to determine and fix the rent of the 
ground ; the people of the inner land are not to raise the prices and 
extort, nor are the people from afar permitted to compel the hire, 
nor to be hard and rapacious; and it is necessary that each party 
express its own wishes in accordance with equity and honesty. 
Should, peradventure, any graves be destroyed or dug up by the 
C^lpnese people, the Chinese local officers will make strict seizure 
.ppd punish them according to law. In the places where the people 
. of t^ United States anchor their vessels, and take up their tempo- 
, wy. abode, the merchants, sailors, and others, will only be per- 
, jmitt^d to walk about on the neighbouring ground, and will not be 

2 E 2 



420 AMBBICAN TREATY WITH CHINA^ 

allowed to go fiir into the villages and hamlets of the inneir }§iid 
and wander where they please : still less may they go to tba macr 
kets and military stations^ and privately carry on trs^e. Tke 
boundaries will be consulted upon^ and fixed with the conBuk .)^ 
the local officers of the five ports, each according to the. peop}^ 
feetings, and the situation of the place ; and they may not be pa^t 
ed over; in order to fix the period for eternity, and for tl^e mntqi^ 
quiet of both. i • • .;. ^ 

l8Ch. '* It is permitted to the officers and people of the Umti^4 
States to engage scholars from all parts of China, to instruct thpni 
in the dialects of every place, and to assist them in lit^r^y affairs; 
of whatsoever rank or class the persons so engaged jx^ he, the 
Chinese local officers and people may not iu the slightest degree 
molest or injure them. The people of the United Staters are also, 
permitted to collect and buy all kinds of Chinese books.. 

19th. *' Hereafter people of the United States quietly trading 
in China, will be on terms of mutual friendship and amity with ths 
Chinese. The local officers must constantly afford them protectipH. 
and care, causing them and their families to be in perfect peaee* 
They will also make inquiries and prohibit all vagabonds. fiK>2Q in?- 
suiting and vexing them. Should any lawless viUains of the innepr 
land, with malicious intent set fire to and bum the foreign hoyseil 
or plunder and rob the property, the consuls will immediately i^pf^ 
port it to the local officers, who will send soldiers and police to f mK 
press the tumult, make examination and seiae the offenders^* «nd 
also take the vagabonds who burn and plunder, and pu|^h tbmp^ 
severely according to law. 

20th. '' People of the United States having brought pieichfm^. 
dize into port, and paid duties upon it, should they wish to Jfs^k^ 
the dlBembarked goods and transport them to another port for ac^^*. 
may state the matter clearly to the consuls, who will convey i^ re- 
port to the superintendent of customs to see if the duties, said to. 
be paid, agree with the custom-house books, and to send on offioeiri 
to make inquiry whether they really be the original bales and th^ 
identical goods, and that there has been no breaking open and, 
moving, or taking out and changing, and such like impropriety,^* 
when he will immediately take the number of peculs of merchant 
dize, and the sum of the duties already paid, and enter them into . 
a pass ; which will be given to the said merchant to receive an4 
hold ; at the same time, he will dispatch a letter to the superintend . 
dent of customs o£ the other port to examine accordingly ; an^* 
when the said vessel shall enter that port, and it be found pn.. 
examination that there is no discrepancy, she will immediately b& 
permitted to open her hold and make sales, in order to avoid. jt^; 
payment of duties a second time ; should there be any false accur,i 
sations or secret conveyance of things, on the discovery of it by 
the superintendant of customs, the goods shall be confiscate ;fp) 
govenineut. ,' ;j; .. 



AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA. 421 

'"Mst. ^'Hereafter, should any Chinese have any quarrels, dis- 
putes, or get mutually involved with the people of the United 
S'iates, the Chinese will be seized and examined by the Chinese 
lobjES oflSders, and will be punished according to the laws of China, 
^fhtt; people of the United States shall be seized and examined by 
tte-^onsiils and other officers, a.nd will be punished according to 
thte ' law 6f their country ; but it is requisite that both should in 
justice and integrity divide the question, and neither side cherish 
pftitiality, which would lead to quarrels. 

2Snd. '^The United States having now with China adjusted and 
sWora to peace and amity, their ships may go and come at the five 
4>orts to £Mde. If at any future time, another country should be 
at enmitj^ with China, China may only prevent the inimical nation, 
and not permit it to resort to the five ports for trade. When peo- 
ple of the United States go to the other country to trade, or trans- 
port the merchandize of that country to the five ports, China must 
recognise the United States flag, and permit them to enter the 
river. But the United States merchant ships will not be permitted 
privately to introduce one soldier of the other nation into port, nor 
receive the bribes of merchants of the other nation, who call upon 
Utietti to exchange flags, and bring merchandize for them into port 
fcft trade;?' Should there be any infraction of this prohibition, it 
shietll. be allowable for China to search it out, seize the parties^ and 
stittle it. * 

^'^28rd, "'At the close of every Chinese year, each of the consuls 
]^IIMdingiit the five ports must take an account of the ships and 
goods of the United States yearly entering and leaving the port, 
atid of the prices at which they are valued, and minutely report it 
Wthe governor-general of each province, that he may transmit it, 
fed the board of Revenue, as a proof for examination. 

34th. " Should people of the United States in any important 
matters make complaints to the Chinese officers, they must first 
petition the consuls and other officers, who will examine whether 
the words and phrases in the .petition be clear and intelligible, and 
the subject reasonable, after which they will at once transmit it to 
the local officers to examine into and arrange. Should Chinese in 
any important matters make complaints to the consuls and other 
officers, they must first petition the local officers, who will examine 
whether the words and phrases in the petition be clear and intel- 
ligible, and the subject reasonable, after which they will at once 
transmit it to the consuls and other officers to examine in,to and 
arrange. Should it happen that people of China and of the United 
Slates wrangle about any matter, and are not able to arrange it 
atSicably, it will be necessary for the officers of both nations to 
m^t inquiry, and equitably examine and decide the matter. 

''!i5th. '^ Should people of the United States at the five ports of 
CHina be involved in disputes among themselves about property, it 
will be examined into and arranged by the consuls and other 



422 AMERICAN TREATY WITH CBIfTA. 

» 

officers of their country. If people of the Uuitcd States in China, 
dispute and wrangle about matters with traders of other natioosj, 
it must be arranged in accordance with the rules established hy 
their respective nations; Chinese officers will make no inquiry 
whatever about it. 

26th. ^' When merchant ships of the United States enter the 
five ports of China^ and anchor there^ they come under the control 
of the consuls and other officers in company with the captains of 
the vessels, China will have no control whatever over them. Should 
it happen that on the high seas, other nations insult and injure 
traders of the United States, China cannot revenge it ox^ their ac- 
count ; but if merchant vessels of the United States, when on seas 
within the jurisdiction of China, be plundered by pirates, the 
Chinese civil and militarv officers, must, as soon as they hear it 
reported, make a strict seiziure of the robbers, and punish them ac- 
cording to law. The recovered stolen goods, of whatever quantify, 
must cdl be delivered to the nearest consul and other officers to be 
all returned to the original owners. But the territory of China 
being vast, and the people numerous, it is ten thousand to one 
but that the principal thief cannot be caught, or there .be thieves 
and no stolen goods, or the stolen goods may not be completely 
recovered, and the Chinese local officers must act as is separately 
provided for by law, and cannot make up or return, the stoI<pn 
articles. 

27th. ^' If merchant vessels of the United States, when o£P the 
Chinese shore, meet with tempests, strike on rocks, get on shore, 
or meet with pirates, so that the vessel be destroyed, the local 
officers along the coasts, on examination and knowledge thereof, 
must immediately set on foot measures for rescue, and devise 
means for showing increased compassion, so that they may reach 
their port and get repaired. In all buying of rice and provisions 
and obtaining fresh water, the least oppression or hindrance must 
not be given. Should the said merchant vessel be wrecked on the 
outer seas and be drifted to the Chinese fchore, as soon as the 
officers shall have made clear inquiries into it, they must also treat 
them all with soothing compassion, and arrange their matters 
securely. 

28th. " Merchant vessels, and property, belonging to people of 
the United States, which may be found at the five ports of China, 
may not be taken by force or intimidation by the local officers, 
such as laying embargos on vessels for public use or otherwise. 
But they must be suffered quietly to carry on their trade in order 
to avoid trouble and annoyance* 

29th. '' If, among the people of the United States, there be 
any on ship-board, who do not attend to their duty, and leaving 
their ship, escape to the inner land to conceal themselves, the 
Chinese local officers will immediately depute police runners to 
seize and bring them to the consuls and other officers for punish- 



AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA. 423 

inent. If any Chinese^ having offended the laws^ go t6 the houses 
an(l dwellings, and on board of the merchant ships^ of the people 
of the tJnited States, to conceal themselves, the Chinese local 
officers, on discovering it, will immediately address a letter to the 
coiisul and other officers, to seize and send them back. In either 
c^ase, the least shelter or concealment must not be given. With 
. respect to the merchants, sailors, and others of the United States, 
they wilt all come under the consuls and other officers, who will, 
when necessary, make examination and keep them under restraint. 
Tf the people of the two nations use force, and make disturbances, 
or cardessly use fire-arms and wound men, so as to lead to fight- 
ing, killiiig, and other serious cases, the officers of the two nations 
must maintain the laws, and severely punish them : there must 
not be the least partiality, which would cause the hearts of all to 
be unsubmissive. 

30th. " Hereafter, in the official correspondence to and fro of 
the great ministers of China with the great ministers of the United 
States, there must be used, in accordance with the principles of 
equality, the form of ' official communication.' In the official 
correspondence to and &o, of the consuls with the Chinese local 
officers, the form of 'official communication' will also be used. In 
reporting to the high officers, the form ' explanatory statement * 
wii]i be ifsed. If common people address officers, they will, as be- 
fore, use the form of ' petition.' There may be no appearance of 
insult or disrespect, to the wounding of public friendship on either 
side ; while the two nations must not seek for, or extort from each 
other, ceremonious observances. 

3ist. " If, on a future day, the United States send a national 
letter to the government of China, the original document must be 
presented on their account by the imperially appointed high com- 
missioner, or by the governor-general of the Two Kw&ag, or of 
Fookeen, and Chekidng, or of the Two Ki^ng, or by other great 
ministers who may be arranging on the part of the middle na- 
tion, the affairs of outside nations. 

32nd. " Hereafter, if the United States have ships of war sent 
to inspect the trade coming to the different ports, the naval com- 
modore, or high naval officers of the vessel of war, will be treated 
by the high civil and military officers of China at that place upon 
terms of equality, in order to show a feeling of amity and good- 
will. If the aforesaid ships of war want to purchase provisions, or 
get fresh water and other things, China cannot in any way forbid 
or hinder them. Should, perhaps, a ship of war be injured, she 
also will be permitted to be repaired. 

33rd. " All people of the United States who presume to take 

upon themselves to go to other ports, where no custom-house has 

■ ."been opened, and privately carry on trade, smuggle, and evade the 

' duties, or introduce opium and other prohibited articles in Chiua^ 

' t^e Chinese local officers may themselves adjudicate it, and punish 



' ■ •: 



424 KETINO'S COMMENTS OM AKBBICAN TBMATT* 

them. The government, or people ci the United States, must not 
Bfford the least protection. If vessels of another coixntrjr assome 
the flag of the United States, and carry on illegal trade, the United 
States must take measures for prohibiting and preventing it. 

34th. " As soon as the treaty of peace shall have been deleru 
mined upon, the two nations must each obey and keep it, and not 
trivially make changes. With respect to the dissimilarity of the 
circumstances of each port, and the regulations regarding barter^ 
and the high seas, it is to be feared that there cannot but be some 
slight changes ; therefore, after a period of twelve years, the two 
nations will appoint officers to consult upon and settle them eqirit« 
ably. Further, after the treaty of peace shall have received the 
imperial reply and assent, the government and people of' the two 
countries must both reverentially obey it. With respect to the 
several states of the United States, they will not be allowed to de^ 
pute an officer hither, or otherwise have further deliberations.'^ 

An incident connected with the foregoing treaty illustrates Chi- 
nese diplomacy. Mr. Gushing in order to conciliate Keying, the 
Chinese commander, refrained from attempting to go to Peking, 
and even refused to make the attempt, when M. Lagr^n^, the French 
plenipotentiary, asked Mr. Gushing to join him, and proeeed to the 
mouth of the Feiho, and thence to Peking. Yet there is iko dtmht • 
that Keying misrepresented this negotiation with Mr. Oodhing^ as 
he had done others, and spoke of him in a most degrading mantier 
to his sovereign, as shewn in the following document :-^ ' ■ ^ ' 

Concluding remarks of Keying, respecting the American Treaty^ in 

his memorial to the throne, 

" The original copy of the treaty, presented by the said barbar- 
ian envoy, contained forty-seven stipulations. Of these some were 
difficult of execution, others foolish demands, whilst several of the 
most important points of the treaty were omitted on the list. The 
sense of it was, moreover, so meanly and coarsely expressed, tJie 
words and sentences were so obscure, and there was such a variety 
of errors, that it was next to impossible to point them out. 

*^ Your slave Keving, therefore, dii'ected the treasurer Hwang, 
and all the deputed mandarins, to hold interviews with (the Ame- 
rican envoy) for days together, to discuss the matters verbally, and 
severally decide what stipulation ought to be granted or rescinded, 
lessened or increased. Thus thirty-four regulations were agreed o<i. 

" We clearly pointed out whatever was comprehensible to reason, 
in (M'der to dispel their stupid ignorance, and to put a st^p to (ds^ - 
lusive) hopes, whilst expatiating with strictness upon the most bind^' 
ing of the statutes, we were obliged to polish those passages whioll' 
were scarcely intelligible, so as to render the sense somewhat mol'e 



AMBBICAN TftXitSY BXAMINEB BY KETINO. 425 

birnotM^ m order to remove all ambiguity; and only after four 
tkofis alteiitig the oopies^ we adopted (the paper). 

I ^^ Amongst the (naginal paragraphs of the said envoy^ it would 
appear that there were ten> which it was impossible to grants al- 
tbo9^h the demand was made with firmness. 

?l»t. ''Whenever the consuls of the various ports have any 
affilir, thejr ought to submit the same distinctly to the Governors 
and Lieutenant-governors ; but the said barbarian envoy request- 
ed to bring complaints before the censorate. 

tod. " It is evident, that whenever the factories are burnt by 
accident, they ought to be rebuilt by the merchants themselves. 
Yet the said barbarian envoy, brought again forward the old Hong 
law for compenstttion and re-erection, requesting that the authori- 
ties should make good the loss. 

^rd. '^ After the bulk of foreign goods is broken, and the ton- 
nage dues are paid, the authorities do not trouble themselves about 
the rapidity and slowing of the sale ; yet the said barbarian envoy 
wished, that the duties on articles which could not b^ sold within 
three years, should be refunded. 

4th. ''Notwithstanding the abolition of the Hong system, and 
the optional commerce of the barbarian merchant with every 
Obijftese diealer ; the said barbarian envoy still requested, that man- 
darins shcmld build warehouses for them. 

• dth. 'iThe barbarians are allowed to go to five p<»ts only, and 
not to any other places, but the said barbarian envoy wished to 
have permission to trade with nations that were at war or at 
peace with China. 

6th. "The control of merchantmen, that have entered a port 
and anchored, devolves upon the consul. The said barbarian 
envoy, however, thought it his duty to ask, that the Celestial Em- 
pire should exercise the whole power of protection and manage- 
ment : 80 that if accidentally any other nation inflicted inrndt, Okin€t 
might be required to requite tMs. 

7th. " When foreign nations are engaged in strife, China has nff 
means of restraininy them; yet the barbarian envoy requested that 
an enemy pursuing a merchant ship, the Central Empire ought to pro^ 
tect and aid them m attacking the same. 

8th. " Foreign men-of-war ought to anchor outside the port, 
but the said barbarian envoy would have it, that on their arrival, 
mutual salutes, as a token of honour, should be fired both firom the 
forts as well as the vessel. 

9th. "The official correspondence ought to be received and 
seMerally examined by the nearest Governor and Lieutenant-go- 
veamor ; the said barbarian envoy, nevertheless, requested, that the 
stUtte papers of their country, should pass either through the 
ci^inet of the capital or the supreme boards. 

.MHh. " The treaty is solely intended to promote hanneny and 



4M DIFPBRCNCBd IV AMEEICAN TRKAffT. 

friendship, and to femova pomlU of altercation befgr^eliLaiid ; b^t 
the said barbarian envoy would have it, that when the two ns^tiojgis 
were at war, the removal and return of their merchanti^ for avoid- 
ing cidamitj, ought still to be permitted. 

" Many of the items present obstacles, or can scarcely be carried 
into effect, or would constitute abuses^ others ara mare trifles, or 
eotmeoua views, with quite a sufi&cient variety ctf gain seeking and 
cunning dedgns. Your slave therefore directed H wang-f^tung ai^d 
the deputies, to rqect one by one each article, and not in the most 
distant manner accede to them. At most, some points bave been 
more than a thousand, at least, others five or six times discussed. 
It was thea, that the said barbarian envoy submitted to reason, 
and being at a loss for what to say, was willing^ and agreed to 
hmfB (the olqectional clauses) expunged. 

'' About eight-tenths of the trading regulationa^ now established, 
agree with the recent stipulations of last year. 

(Exceptions are :) 

1st. " When a vessel has paid her tonnage dues, but is not able 
to dispose (of her cargo) she may go to another port, without being 
oUiged to pay again port dues* 

2ud. '' If a merchantman has anchored in a harbour, but not yet 
broken bulk, and wishes, within the space of two di^, to proceed to 
another emporium, she will pay no tonnage dues. 

8id. ^^When a merchantman has entered the port,, paid, the 
whole of the dues, and wishes to proceed with the landed goods 
to another port, to sell the same, she is exempted firom paying ton- 
nage does and duties* a second time. 

'' These axe some slight changes in the regulations of last year. 
But the circumstances of the times of yore, when there was only 
one mart (via : Canton) open, differ from the present, when trade 
to five empcniums is permitted. The said barbarians there^re 
will, whenever there is no demand f<Hr goods in one port, sell them 
at another, for this is the unvarpng conduct of speculators, and it 
would not be right to restrain them, nor would it be proper, 
after having paid the duties and port dues^ to levy them a second 
time. In order therefore to meet the spirit of commerce, we ought 
to make conditionally some alterations, and still go on makmg 
strict inquires, to obviate abuses* 

1st. " At the ports where they trade, we allow them to rent 
ground for erecting themselves chapels, sj)d for a burial place. 

2nd. ^^ They also requested, that sdtolaj^ of the central empire 
should teach them their native language, and assist them in tb^ir 
literary labours, as well as to buy all kinds of Chinese booka. . ) 

** Your slave refused this at first to them, but the said barb^ri^ 
envoy again remarked, that the Portuguese at Macao, as wejUlas 
the Ifinghsh at Hong Kong, could both build chapels and choose a 
burial place, so that the living might sow the seeds of their happi- 



BUILDING CHAPBLfS^ ftURTINO fitS DiSAD^ &C. 4Sff 

neiss^ Hnd the detid Mde tlieiir bon^s somewhere. At the com- 
mencement few of their countrymen came to China^ and did not 
d^e to ask the grant of a biirial place^ and it would be putting 
them into the background^ if thej were at this time iK>t permitted 
to rient pounds for these establishments. 

''As for the request to allow Chinese scholars to buy books, this 
was an old affair^ and they therefore requested to enter it aznozigst 
the provisions of the treaty, and words to that effect. 

^ It appears on re-consideration, that the said barbarians them- 
selves rent the ground for the burial place, and for building 
chapels, and it would not be right to refuse this flatly and obsti^ 
nately. 'Still we must distinctly explain the prohibitions, that 
they do not fordbly rent, and ruthlessly take possession, in deft- 
ance of the peculiarity of circumstances. If the gentry and people 
ai'e indeed unwilliilg, the said barbarians will hare no further 
pretence. 

''We have no means of ascertaining whether it has always been 
the case, that scholars bought books (for them), but there can be 
no objection ]]to granting this request.] 

'' The remaining demands have reference to the treaty of peaoe^ 
and do not concern commercial matters^ and wfll by no means 
^reitent bbstades to the execution of the law. 

" Mer<chtots that presume to repair to other places, e^eept the 
five ports, for the sake of clandestine trade and smuggling, and 
Svho introduce opium with all other kinds of illicit articles, wili be 
by the Chinese local mandarins proceeded against and pusdshed. 
This is one of the additional clauses, to which the said enroy in- 
stantly acceded, and is a sufficient proof that those barbarians wiU 
obey the laws of the Celestial Empire, and not dare to yield to 
their passions and act wantonly. 

" The paragraph, in which it was agreed upon, that tiie consuls 
of the five ports, should, at the end of each year, give a clear 
account of their vessels and cargoes, to the respective governors 
and lieutenant-goyemors, to be transmitted for examination to the 
board of revenue, furnishes sufficient evidence that the said barba- 
rians wili, in their commercial pursuits, abide by their duty, »id 
are not willing to defraud the revenue. 

'' The said barbarian envoy would agree to all the particulars of 
the tariff established last year, but merely remarked, that lead was 
a product of their country, and that it was certainly exorbitant, 
that it should pay four mace duty, which is thnee times more than 
iron pays, and therefore proposed a reduction. Your slave taking 
into consideration, that foreign lead is not a staple article, and that 
his request is reasonable, lowered the duty therefore one mace two 
"liftndareen per pecul, to which the said barbarian envoy ii£»tantly 
' fiftiewed obedience. 
" '^Whilst respectfully forwarding the memorial, w« subjinn this 



ilt9 CONDUOf Of AUmUtOA IN CHtNA. 

proidaion of this treatv agreed upon, with an aocurate explanation 
of all the particolarB/^ 

The intercourse between the United States government and 
China has been purely commercial^ but great credit is due to Ame- 
rican citizens for their philanthropic and Christian exertions in 
China. They have been the chief if not sole promoters of that ex- 
cellent establishmenti entitled the " Medical Missionary Society/' 
which has now hospitals at each of the opened ports in China, where 
the sick and diseased are cured, and their hearts prepared by kind- 
i^ess and skUl, for the reception of the truths of Christianity. 
That estimable man. Dr. Parker, has founded a noble hospital at 
Canton, which I visited, and saw the remarkable effects of his 
surgical skill in active combination with his missionary efforts. 
The Bight Bev. Dr. Boone, Bishop of the American Episcopalian 
Church, is now in China, aided by several excellent male BXii female 
missionaries. Bnt of these subjects I shall treat hereafter. Suffice 
it to say that the United States government in their treaty with 
China^ and in vigihint protection of their subjects at Canton, have 
evinced far better diplomacy, and more attention to substantial 
interests^ than we have done, although it has not cost them as 
many groats as we have spent guineas, while their portion in 
China is reallv more advantageous and respected than that of Eng- 
l9fl^ after all our sacrifices of blood and treasure, as will be sub- 
sequently demonstrated. 

It was not until the year 1846, that the Canton Government 
made an official announcement of the treaties between the Go- 
vernment of China and Foreign Nations, as given in the following 
Proclamation^ 

" Lew^ Prefect of Canton, raised ten steps and recorded ten timea, 
issues these lucid orders for general information. 

'' We rec^ved previously the Imperial orders, that every nation 
should be permitted to carry on trade within the precincts of the 
ports, including Canton. The Imperial Commissioners, in con- 
junction with the Governors and Lieutenant-governors ha^xe 
therefore made from time to time treaties and regulations, which 
having received the approval of the Emperor, were carried into 
effect, and proclaimed by my predecessor in the prefecture ; as is 
oti record. 

'^ I the Prefect having now entered upon the duties of my office, 
am apprehensive that the people do not yet universally know the 
business that has been settled, and how they should act in obe- 
dience [to these stipulations] : I have therefore made a selection 
of those articles which concei^n both foreigners and natives, draw*^ 
ing up a list of the same, and publishing them to all the militaiy 
and people, that they may in a body obey them. Do not oppose 1' 
As for the duties on commerce, which are under the management ' 
. of the Marine Custom-house, we did not deem it necessary tb 
include them in our notice. A special Proclamation. i 



CANTO«N GOVBBtfttSira ANNO01ICK TORSION TREATIES. 429 

Iftt. ^* FrouL heoeeforth our natives ought to live in mutual 
harmony and friendship with the barbarians of every country; 
they ought not to insult eaeh other, but cultivate peace on both 
sides. 

2nd. "The subjects of every country are now allowed to bring with 
them their families and relations to the five marine ports of 
Canton, Amoy, Ningpo> Foochoo, and Shanghai, for the sake of 
carrying on trade and commerce/ without any hindrance. 

8. " The merchants of every country are permitted to stop 
either a long or short time in any of the five ports, with the femilies 
they brought with them, to hire the houses of the citizens, or rent 
ground to erect themselves buildings on it, to establish hongs; 
warehouses, hospitals, churches, benevolent institutions, schools, 
colleges, and burial grounds. The Chinese Mandarins, after 
having in conjunction with Consuls ascertained the wishes of the 
people, will fix upon some spot to that effect. The natives will 
then settle the rent with, [the merchants] of the various nations in 
a fair and equitable manner ; but the Chinese must not raise the 
price to extort money. The foreigners, however, must not compel 
them to let their houses, or take forcible possession of the same. 
The number of houses occupied and the respective amount of 
rent, will be reported annually by the Consuls to the local autho- 
rities, who will transmit the same, that it may be placed on record. 
- 4th. " The ships of every nation are permitted to trade at the 
five ports, but not allowed to go everywhere. If they, in defiance 
of the treaty, do not conform to these restrictions, and go of 
their own accord to other places, loitering about and trading> 
the Chinese -Government is at liberty to confiscate the cargo 
as well as the vesilel._ If however the Chinese at any spot, 
except the five ports, carry or a clandestine traffic with these 
merchantmen, they shall be dealt with according to the laws of 
their country. 

5th. ^^ There were formerly at Canton hong merchants esta- 
blished, who having been abolished, the traders of the various na- 
tions are permitted in future, when repairing to any of the five 
ports, to have commercial dealing and transactions in exports as 
well as in imports with any Chinese they please. If there is any 
combination amongst the inhabitants to bring about a monopoly, 
the consuls wUl communicate the teict to the Chinese authorities, 
who will prevent this, and bring [the guilty] to trial. 

t>th. ''If any Chinese merchant cheats traders of the various 
countries with whom he has had commercial dealings, and without 
paying for the goods runs away when in debt, he will be denounced 
ta the local authorities, who will pursue him. But if the defaulter 
has concealed himself, and no traces of him can be discovered, or 
wh^n the debtor has died, or has no property ; the former law in 
force among the hongs, for seeking an indemnification, cannot be 
applied, and no request for making up the loss be preferred. The 



48D otfietAt AHitdvifOBinim ov meshin tbeatiis. 

tariotit nttioM oti rtmning up debit with OUneie merehants, oagbt 
to be dndt with in a liinihur manner. 

7. ^' Every nation^ In loading and unloading cargo, may at their 
convenience, engage any kind of boat or lighter for canring their 
cargo ; and thwe k no iied pricei ao that eveiy merchant may 
tetUe it witii the boatmen without any interference on the part of the 
mandarin! } but if the boat people are found imuffgling, they will 
be pnniflhed aecording to the law. Those who, when carrying the 
goods, cheat, or run away with them, will be seised and brought 
to trial by the local officers with due striotnass. The boat people 
and coolies engaged in loading and unloading vessels, must not. 
engross the employment exdusive to their own number ; if so, they 
will be subject to punishment* 

8th. ^* At every anchorage of the various nations, the eonanls 
will appofast a subovdinate officer to ezetnise control over the 
sailors, to avoid disputes or ^oarrels betwixt thMS and the Chinese. 
If such take place, meani will be adcqpted fer brisging the same to 
a terminaition. If the aeamen ge on shore, the official person will 
appoint a mate to aoeempany them. If any altercation arises, 
that mate will be held responsible for it The mandarins of the 
place, ou|;ht on no account to hinder natives of the lower classes 
from gomg alongside the shipsr to buy and aeU any provisions 
which the sailors in the various vessels may require. 

9th. ^ The merchants of the varieut nations, who are either per- 
manently settled at, or visit for a short time, anv of the five p<Mrts, 
must not wantonlv go into any villages, or walk aoout at their plea- 
sure, nor proceed into the interior to trade. There will be limits 
estahUshed which they are not permitted to exceed, aecording to 
the localities and the dispositions of the people. But if thejr, in 
opposition to this prohibition and treaty, wander wilftiUy far into 
the oountry, the inhabitants of the place are at liberty to seize and 
deliver them over for punishment to the consul. They ought, how- 
ever, not to presipne to engage with them in strife, and wound or 
injure them. 

10th. " As merchants of the various nations are jpermitted to 
live at the five ports, the ChiAcse must seek no cause for insulting 
and troubling them ; neither ought they wilfully to destroy their 
factories, warehouses, hospitals, and graves. Jftut if they, with 
ruthless ferocity, create disturbance, plunder, and commit arson, 
the local authorities will instantly suppress this, seiae the offenders, 
and prosecute them without the slightest show of m«rcy. 

11th. " The merchants of the various nations at the five potts 
wUl hire compradors, linguists, clerks, workmen, and sailors, whom 
tbey are permitted to employ. Nor is it prohibited to persons 
whom they engage, to teach them the Chinese language and litera- 
ture, and assist them in theiir learned labours. The waees and pay 
may either be fixed by themselves, or settled for them by the eon- 



OFFICIAL ANNOUNCBMfiNT OF F<MIJ510N TREAflKi^^ 481 

8til at their pleasure. Etery foreigiier may buy Chinese books of 
all descriptions without restriction. 

12th. " Any foreigners who have a cause of complaint^ may 
through the consul^ transmit a petition to the local authorities ; 
the Chinese who have any grievance^ must forwaard the same through 
the mandarins of the plaee, to be sent to the consul to be managed 
in like manner. 

13th. ^ If the Chinese have any case of dispute with foreigpers^ 
they may state the subject to the consul^ who will institute an 
investigation as to the respective merits of either party^ and en- 
deavour earnestly to put a stop to it, so as not to grow into a re- 
gular lawsuit. But if he cannot dissuade them from, it« he wilj 
transmit his request to the local authorities publicly to exi^mine 
and justly to pronounce a decision. The consul will himsdf de- 
termine the nature of the offence on the part of his own m^chants, 
and deal with them accordingly, whilst the crimes of the Chi)ie3e 
wiU be punished according to their own law. 

14th. ** If any runaway sailors, ox people oi any otH^ dc^scjdp- 
tion, have concealed themselves in the Chinese teiaritoryj, they will 
be apprehended by the mandarins of the place find delivered vun tp 
their authorities ; but if any Chinese, having transgressed the l^^w, 
escape to any place where £0^ eigners live, or on board their veis^d^^ 
to hide themselves there^ the respective consuls wiU^ on discover- 
ing tkem, hand them over to the local i^uthoritie^j that theyinay 
be. punished according to law. If they are not yet foupid: put, th]& 
local officers will send pSIicial notice, to institute an inquiry for 
their apprehension and deUvery ; but they must not aflp^cd them 
shelter, or a hiding-place. 

15th. *' If any Chinese engage in strife with a foreign merphant, 
so that lives are lost, the local authorities will seize the murderer ; 
if he be a Chinese, judge, and treat him according to their laws ; 
if he be a foreigner, he will be apprehended and punished by the 
consul according to the laws of his own country. 

16th. " Whenever a foreign vessel is plundered by pirates in 
the Chinese waters, the case must be reported to the nearest mili- 
tary or civil authorities, that they may capture the outlaws with 
the utmost rigour, and punish them according to the laws. If any 
of the stolen goods are recovered, they wiU be handed over to the 
ccmsul, to restore them to their owner. But if nothing is secured 
from the robbers, the local officer entrusted with their seisure shall 
be denounced according to the established laws, but not make 
good the plunder. 

17th. " Any foreign vessels meeting with bad weather in the 
Chinese waters, or running on a rock, or getting aground or en- 
countering robbers, so as to suffer loss and destruction, the man- 
darins on the coast will, immediately after having heard of it, 
adopt measures for their rescue, safety, and protection, and exert 



488 CHINA TO BB TRBATBD AS A CIVILIBVD NATION. 

themselves to show them kindness and convey them to their har- 
bour to refit. The people on the beach or the native boats must 
not avail themselves of their distress to plunder them *, in doing 
which they will bring severe punishment upon themselves. In the 
inner waters the same rules shall prevail. 

1 8th. " Vessels of every nation that have suffered damage, are 
allowed in the nearest place to procure materials for repairing^ tp 
buy provisions, and take in water, and the inhabitants of the sea* 
shore must offer no obstacles. 

'' 2Qd moon, 11th day, (8th March, 1846).'' 



7%e HUtorical Abitraet of British Intercourse with China mil be 
given in the ensuing Chapter, at some length, as it is of great im- 
portance, especially at the present period, to examine carefully our 
past policy, m order that we may be better enabled to pursue, in 
any future arrangements, a wiser course than we have heretofore 
adopted. By the preceding Treaties, and the official announce- 
ment of them just given, the government of China has been brought 
within the political pale of the Western Nations ; and in all respects, 
China should be viewed and treated as a civilized nation with a re« 
sponsible government* 



•^^^•^m^^^rm 



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